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AQA A-level Physics > Particles and radiation > Flashcards

Particles and radiation Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe the structure of an atom

A

-there is a massive, +ve charge located in the centre of the atom (nucleus) containing protons and neutrons

-there are e- which orbit the nucleus in fixed energy levels

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2
Q

What are the charges of protons, neutrons and electrons?

A

p- 1.60 x 10^-19 C
n- 0
e- -1.60 x 10^-19 C

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3
Q

What are the relative charges of protons, neutrons and electrons?

A

p- +1e
n- 0
e- -1e

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4
Q

What are the masses of protons, neutrons and electrons?

A

p- 1.67 x 10^-27 kg
n- 1.67 x 10^-27 kg
e- 9.11 x 10^-31 kg

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5
Q

What are the relative masses of protons, neutrons and electrons?

A

p- 1
n- 1
e- 1/2000

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6
Q

What is a nuclide?

A

a very specific nucleus, there is a specified number of protons and neutrons

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7
Q

What is a nucleon?

A

a particle from the nucleus such as a proton or neutron

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8
Q

What is an isotope?

A

nuclei with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons

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9
Q

What is an ion and how are they formed?

A

-a charged particle
-formed when there is an imbalance of electrons and protons in an atom

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10
Q

What is specific charge? What is its units?

A

the ratio of charge to mass
units- Ckg^-1

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11
Q

How do you work out specific charge?

A

specific charge (Ckg^-1) = charge of particle (C) / mass (kg)

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12
Q

Calculate the specific charge of a proton

A

charge= 1.60 x 10^-19 C
mass= 1.67 x 10^-27 kg

Divide charge by mass to get 9.58 x 10^7 Ckg^-1

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13
Q

List the 4 fundamental forces of particle interactions

A

E-M force
Gravitational force
Strong nuclear force
Weak interaction

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14
Q

Describe the E-M force

A

acts on charged particles

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15
Q

Describe the gravitational force

A

-very weak
-acts on mass
-always attractive

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16
Q

Describe the strong nuclear force (3)

A

-very strong
-short range
-acts on nucleons to bind the nucleus

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17
Q

Describe weak interaction (4)

A

-short range
-decay of particles
-does not need to conserve strangeness
-allows one quark to change into another (changes quark flavour)

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18
Q

What is the strong nuclear force?

A

a fundamental force that keeps the nucleus stable by counteracting the electrostatic force of repulsion between protons

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19
Q

Draw a diagram showing the strong nuclear force on nucleons and label it

A

https://cdn.savemyexams.co.uk/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2021/02/4.-Strong-Nuclear-Force_-Graph.png

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20
Q

Describe how the strong nuclear force changes as the distance between two nucleons is changed.

A

-for nucleon separation less than 0.5fm, the strong nuclear force is repulsive
-between 0.5fm and 3fm, the force is attractive
-beyond 3fm nucleon separation, the force is 0

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21
Q

Why can’t the strong nuclear force stabilise all particles?

A

as some unstable nuclei have too many of protons, neutrons (or both) therefore this force isn’t enough to keep them stable

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22
Q

What other decay could be used if the strong nuclear force doesn’t work?

A

alpha decay
beta minus decay

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23
Q

Describe alpha decay and provide a general formula for it

A

occurs in large nuclei, with too many of both protons and neutrons

https://cdn.savemyexams.co.uk/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2021/08/6.2.7-GCSE-Alpha-Equation.png

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24
Q

What is an alpha particle?

A

a particle which contains two protons and neutrons, the same as a helium nucleus

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25
Q

Describe beta minus decay and provide a general formula for it

A

-occurs in nuclei which are neutron-rich
-a neutron is changed into a proton
-releases an electron and electron antineutrino

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26
Q

What are the laws of nature? (3)

A

-total energy is conserved
-charge is conserved
-momentum is conserved

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27
Q

How was the existence of the neutrino hypothesised?

A

the energy of particles after beta decay was lower than before, so the neutrino was introduced to account for the excess energy

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28
Q

Describe beta plus decay and produce a general formula for it

A

-occurs in nuclei which are ‘proton’ rich
-a proton is changed to a neutron
-releases a positron (anti-electron) and electron neutrino

https://cdn.savemyexams.co.uk/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2021/08/6.2.7-GCSE-Beta-Plus-Equation.png

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29
Q

State two properties of the electron neutrino

A

-zero charge
-very low mass

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30
Q

What is an antiparticle?

A

For every type of particle there is an antiparticle which has the same rest energy and mass but all its other properties are opposite the particles such as charge

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31
Q

What is the antiparticle for an electron?

A

positron

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32
Q

How does E-M radiation travel? What does it do?

A

-travels through photons
-transfers energy

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33
Q

How can we work out the energy of a photon? What are the possible equations?

A

e= hc/λ
energy of a photon (J) = plancks constant (Js) x wave speed (ms^-1) / wavelength (m)

OR

e= hf
energy of a photon (J) = plancks constant (Js) x frequency (Hz)

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34
Q

What is plancks constant?

A

6.63 x 10^-34 Js

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35
Q

How can we work out power from a stream of photons?

A

power (W) =no. photons per sec (s^-1) x energy of a photon (J)

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36
Q

How can we work out rest energy?

A

e= mc^2

energy (J) = mass (kg) x speed of light in a vaccum^2

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37
Q

How is rest energy often represented?

A

in electron volts (eV)

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38
Q

How can we convert electron volts to joules?

A

1eV= 1.60 x 10^-19 J

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39
Q

What is annihilation?

A

when a particle and their corresponding antiparticle meet which then causes their masses to convert into energy in the form of two photons which move in opposite directions to conserve momentum

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40
Q

Draw a diagram showing annihilation

A

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41
Q

What is an application of annihilation?

A

in PET scanners:
-done by introducing a positron-emitting radioisotope into the patient
-as positrons are released they annihilate with electrons already in the patients system,
-emits gamma photons which can easily be detected

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42
Q

What is pair production?

A

-where a photon interacts with matter and creates a particle-antiparticle pair
-any excess energy is converted into kinetic energy of the particles

43
Q

Why must pair production occur near a nucleus?

A

to conserve momentum and energy

44
Q

Why must a photon have a frequency above the min. value for pair production to occur? How can we work out the min. energy for this?

A

the photon energy will be greater than the sum of the energies of the particles, therefore allowing pair production to occur

2 x rest energy of particles

45
Q

What are exchange particles?

A

particles carry energy and momentum between the particles experiencing the fundamental forces

46
Q

What are the exchange particles for the fundamental forces?

A

E-M–> virtual photon
strong nuclear force–> pions/gluon
weak interaction–> W boson

47
Q

What particles are affected by the fundamental forces?

A

E-M–> charged particles
strong nuclear force–> hadrons
weak interaction–> all particles

48
Q

What ranges to the fundamental forces cover?

A

E-M–> infinite range
strong nuclear force–> short range
weak interaction–> short range

49
Q

What processes is the weak interaction responsible for?

A

-beta decay
-electron capture
-electron-proton collision

50
Q

Draw the particle interaction diagrams for beta decay, electron capture and electron-proton collision

A

beta minus decay:
https://cdn.savemyexams.co.uk/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2021/03/Beta-Minus-Decay.png

beta plus decay:
https://cdn.savemyexams.co.uk/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2021/03/Beta-Plus-Decay.png

electron capture:
https://cdn.savemyexams.co.uk/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2021/03/2.3.3-Electron-Capture-and-Collision.png

electron-proton collision:
https://cdn.savemyexams.co.uk/cdn-cgi/image/w=1920,f=auto/uploads/2021/03/2.3.3-Electron-Capture-and-Collision.png

51
Q

What are fundamental particles?

A

particles that cannot be broken down any further e.g. e-

52
Q

What is a hadron?

A

a subatomic particle which can take part in the strong interaction (strong nuclear force)

53
Q

What is the only stable hadron? What does this mean?

A

the proton
-all other particles will decay into a proton eventually to become stable

54
Q

What are the two classes of hadrons? What is their quark content?

A

-baryons (3 q’s)
-mesons (q and anti-q)

55
Q

What are the most common baryons?

A

protons and neutrons (and their antiparticles)

56
Q

What are the most common mesons?

A

pions and kaons

57
Q

What particle does a kaon decay into?

A

a pion

58
Q

What are leptons?

A

group of fundamental particles

59
Q

What are the most common leptons?

A

-electron, e–
-electron neutrino, ve
-muon, μ–
-muon neutrino, vμ
(including their antiparticles)

60
Q

What are muons? What do they decay into?

A

known as a “heavy electron”, and muons decay into electrons

61
Q

What are strange particles?

A

a property of particles, which shows that strange particles must be created in pairs, as strangeness must be conserved in strong interactions

62
Q

How are strange particles produced and decayed?

A

produced through the strong interaction and decay through the weak interaction

63
Q

Which properties must be conserved in particle interactions apart from the three laws of nature? (3)

A

-electron and muon lepton number
-baryon number
-strangeness (only for strong interaction)

64
Q

What are the three types of quarks?

A

up
down
strange

(and their antiquarks- oppositely charged)

65
Q

What is the quark content of a proton and its antiparticle?

A

proton- uud
antiproton- (antiquark for all quarks)

66
Q

What is the quark content of a neutron and its antiparticle?

A

neutron- udd
antineutron- (antiquark for all quarks)

67
Q

What is the quark content for a pion? (+/-/0)

A

π⁰ –> up, anti up OR down, anti down
π+ –> up, anti down
π- –> anti up, down

68
Q

What is the acronym to check if the particle properties are being conserved?

A

SQUIBBLE

s- strangeness
q- charge
b- baryon number
l- electron lepton number
l- muon lepton number
e- energy

69
Q

When does strangeness not need to be conserved?

A

if the decay is undergoing weak interaction

70
Q

How do we describe a decay when the properties are/are not conserved

A

decay is viable
decay is not viable

71
Q

What can the weak interaction do to particles? Give some examples

A

-changes quark type

beta minus- neutron (udd) changes into proton (uud) therefore d changes into a u

beta plus- proton changes into a neutron therefore u changes into a d

72
Q

What is an electron volt? (eV)

A

the energy gained by an electron travelling through a potential difference of one volt

73
Q

How can we convert eV into joules?

A

1 eV = 1.6 × 10^-19 J

74
Q

What is the photoelectric effect?

A

when electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal after light/photons above a certain frequency is shone on it

75
Q

What do we mean by threshold frequency?

A

the minimum frequency of the photon for electron emission to take place.

76
Q

What process can be used to show particle-like behaviour of waves/light?

A

The photoelectric effect

77
Q

What happens if you shine E-M radiation (photons) on metal above the threshold frequency?

A

it will instantly emit electrons (called photoelectrons)

78
Q

How does the photoelectric effect work?

A

free electrons in the metals near to the surface absorb the energy from E-M radiation (photons) which increases their kinetic energy. if there is enough energy they can escape the surface

79
Q

What does the photon model of light suggest?

A

-each electron can absorb a single photon (1:1) so photoelectrons only emitted if Frequency > Threshold frequency

-if intensity increases, the more photoelectrons are released per second (as long as F > Tf)

80
Q

What is the work function of a metal? Show its symbol and units

A

the minimum energy required for electrons to be emitted from the surface of a metal
Φ, J

81
Q

What is stopping potential?

A

the potential difference required to stop photoelectron emission from occurring with the max kinetic energy

82
Q

How do we work out stopping potential from an I-V graph?

A

https://phys.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/15628/CNX_UPhysics_39_02_photoexp1.jpg?revision=1

83
Q

Show the equation used for Ekmax and the stopping potential. Include units

A

Ek(max)= eVs

where:
Vs= stopping potential (V)
e= charge of an electron (coulombs)
Ek(max)= maximum kinetic energy of emitted photons(J)

84
Q

Write the photoelectric equation. Include units

A

hf = Φ + Ekmax

where:
hf= energy of a photon (h= plancks const., f=frequency of photon) (J)
Φ= work function (J)
Ekmax= maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons(J)

85
Q

How can the photoelectric equation be presented as a graph?

A

Ekmax= hf - Φ

where:
h= gradient
f= x (x-axis)
Φ= c
Ekmax= y (y-axis)

86
Q

Why do photoelectrons have a range of kinetic energy’s from 0≤ Ek ≤Ekmax? Refer to photons

A

-electrons that absorb photons at the surface can escape with the max kinetic energy
-if photons penetrate deeper into the metal, then the electrons may collide and transfer energy to the ionic lattice before escaping with a lower kinetic energy than the maximum

87
Q

What do we mean by the ground state of an atom?

A

the lowest energy level available

88
Q

How can electrons move between energy levels?

A

need energy:

collisions with other atoms or electrons
absorbing/emitting a photon
a physical source, such as heat

89
Q

What is excitation?

A

when electrons are excited they move up energy levels when energy is absorbed (usually by absorbing a photon)

90
Q

What is de-excitation?

A

when electrons are de-excited, the move down energy levels and energy is released in the form of a photon

91
Q

What happens after excitation?

A

the electron will de-excite back down to its ground state/original energy level

92
Q

What is ionisation?

A

when electron gains enough energy to be removed from the atom entirely

93
Q

How can we work out the change in energy when electrons are excited/de-excited?

A

ΔE= E2-E1
(energies can also be worked out using e= hf)

94
Q

Provide a real-life use of excitation. Explain how it works (7)

A

used in a fluorescent tube to create light

-apply high p.d. to electrodes at each end of a low pressure gas tube.
-electrons in the gas accelerate
-collisions between electrons and gas atoms occur.
-collisions cause some electrons to excite energy levels or ionize some atoms.
-excited electrons de-excite and release UV photons.
-UV photons are absorbed by atoms in the tube coating.
-electrons become excited and later de-excite in a cascade, emitting visible light.

95
Q

What are the different types of line spectra?

A

-emission spectra
-absorption spectra

96
Q

Describe how an excited gas produces a discrete emission spectrum

A

-electrons are excited above their ground level by collisions
-electrons later de-excite between discrete energy levels therefore releasing energy in the form of photons but with different frequencies
-these frequencies are observed in emission spectrum

97
Q

Describe how a spectrum of light passing through a cool gas can result in a discrete absorption spectrum

A

-in a cool gas, only photons of a specific frequency are absorbed making electrons excite up energy levels
-these create gaps in the spectrum at certain frequencies where absorption occurs

98
Q

Why are photon emission and absorption spectras further evidence of particle-like behaviour of light?

A

there is a 1:1 interaction of photons (light) and electrons

99
Q

How can electrons be shown having wave properties?

A

electrons are able to diffract

100
Q

What was De Broglie’s hypothesis about wave-particle duality?

A

-matter particles have a dual wave-particle nature
-these can be described as ‘matter wave’

101
Q

What is De Broglie’s equation?

A

λ= h/mv

where:
λ= matter wavelength (m)
h= plancks constant (Js)
mv= mass (kg) x particle velocity (ms^-1)—> momentum (kgms^-1)

102
Q

How and why is the diffraction affected when momentum is changed from De Broglie’s equation?

A

λ= h/mv
if mv increases, lower wavelength
if mv decreases, high wavelength

-the longer the wavelength, the more the light spreads out hence a larger radius is produced
-the shorter the wavelength, the smaller the radius produced

103
Q

How did De Brogile provide evidence for the ‘matter waves’?

A

-electrons from filament are accelerated from an electric field in a vacuum
-electrons are then directed at crystalline graphite (which acts as a diffraction grating)
-the electrons then produced interference patterns from superposition showing wave-like behaviour

AQA A-level Physics (11 decks)

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