Part Four: English Civil Wars, “monarchy to constitution” - 1640 - 1649 Flashcards
What was the Root And Branch Petition?
Root And Branch Petition, 1640
This was signed by 15,000 Londerners in 1640.
It demanded the end of bishops and Puritanism was the force behind it. Pym supported the petition but he did not aim to destroy the Church.
Pym sought the removal of Charles’ influence by letting locals control more of their church allowing the religious system to revert from a minitory Laudian church to a calvinist one
What was the Triennial Act?
Triennial Act, 1641
This abolished ship money without parliamentary consent. It also stated that Charles had to call a parliament every three years and it had to last a minimum 50 days.
Why did a Royalist Party form in Parliament?
After Bedfords death - Pym created other ways of solving the problems between the Crown and Parliament.
For instance, the bill of attainder - executing Wentworth. This was frowned upon by some MPs - they did not like that blood had been split. They also did not like the Grand Remonstrance which was also passed narrowly (159 to 148)
MPs could generally agree they did not want PR to happen again - but the way of going about this was contested.
The Royalist party formed in fear that the actions and beliefs of radicals like Pym posed more of a threat to political order than Charles did. In face of radical puritanism, in which parliament would take over royal prerogative and the mob hold power, many nobles and gentry panicked and looked to the concept of monarchy rather than Charles himself.
What were the 10 propositions?
The Ten Propositions (1641)
These were demands made by parliament rejected by Charles.
They were significant because they not only confirmed radicalism in parliament but it also proved what they wanted (like major limits on royal prerogative).
Why was Ireland significant in causing the Civil War?
After the rebellion, not only were Protestant fears stoked but Parliament and the Army battled over who should control the army that needed to be sent over to supress the Irish.
Both sides feared that whoever controlled this army would use them against the other side as well as the Irish.
What was the Grand Remonstrance?
Grand Remonstrance, 1641
The Grand Remonstrance was a list of over 200 criticisms of Charles’ government since 1625, which showed why he could not be trusted.
Although the document was careful not to accuse the King Directly, it was nevertheless seen as a direct attack on Charles.
Its passage created deep divisions within Parliament.
While many MPs supported reform, moderates and emerging Royalists saw the document as too radical and feared it would provoke war with the King.
The vote was narrowly passed (159 to 148), revealing Parliament’s split
What was the Militia Bill
The militia bill, 1641
It essentially proposed that Parliament would be in control of the army raised to crush the Irish rebels.
This was revolutionary as it directly questioned Charles’ prerogative and attempted to transfer prerogative powers to parliament.
Pym hoped to use the anger of the London crowds to put pressure on MPs to pass the militia bill.
Charles refused to give his royal assent to the bill
What happened to Bishops during the build up to civil war?
Bishops helped maintain Charles’ power in both the wider landscape and Parliament.
After the 1640 Branch and Petition, they rejected it and stayed in the HoL, however, riots broke out over the next 2 years (especially after the Irish Rebellion) and they were excluded from parliament in the 1642 exclusion bill.
After the Militia Bill was rejected, how did Parliament respond?
After Charles had fled after the 5 members coup, they declared the Militia Ordinance in 1642 which claimed their control over the army without Royal Assent.
How did Charles respond to the Militia Ordinance?
Commission of array - calling all clergy to raise him an army. He later raised the royal standard at Nottingham in 1642
What were the 19 propositions?
The Nineteen Propositions of June 1642 were a final attempt by the English Parliament to limit King Charles I’s power and prevent civil war. They demanded parliamentary control over the military, ministers, and royal children’s marriages, as well as sweeping religious reforms and the appointment of royal advisers approved by Parliament.
The propositions effectively sought to shift England toward a constitutional monarchy, severely restricting the King’s authority.
Charles rejected them outright, viewing them as an attack on his divine right to rule
What was the 5 members coup?
5 members coup, 1642
The Five Members Coup of 1642 was King Charles I’s failed attempt to arrest five leading MPs including John Pym and John Hampden.
The coup backfired badly—it outraged Parliament and the London public, who saw it as proof of Charles’s tyranny.
Pym could easily use the coup as further proof of the danger Charles posed and that the king could not be negotiated with. This also fuelled the London crowd leading to Charles fleeing London - the next time he was in London was 7 years later at his execution. After this, both sides raised armies.
What else happened when Charles fled from London?
A majority of the House Of Lords (probably out of sympathy) left London as well.
But also 2/5 of the House Of Commons fled London, probably because they did not want to be implicated in actions against the King.
What were the reasons for Royalist losses in the First Civil War?
Weaknesses of the Royalists
* Lack of Resources – The Royalists struggled with funding and supplies, whereas Parliament controlled richer areas like London.
- Poor Strategy and Leadership – Charles I was indecisive, and his advisors often gave conflicting advice.
- Failure to Secure Key Cities – London remained in Parliament’s hands, providing them with financial and logistical advantages.
- Divided Support – The Royalists relied on a mix of Catholics and Anglicans, which alienated some potential allies. For instance, Hyde, the head of Royalists in parliament had conflicting views with Charles’ Catholic wife. Charles also struggled to choose which was the best advice.
- Stronger Parliamentarian Army – The creation of the New Model Army (1645) under Oliver Cromwell provided Parliament with a disciplined, professional force.
- Naval Disadvantage – Parliament controlled the navy, cutting off Royalist supply lines.
- Scottish and Irish Factors – The Parliamentarians secured Scottish support in 1643, while the Royalists failed to fully mobilize Irish reinforcements.
What were the strengths of the Royalists?
Strengths of the Royalists
- Support from Nobility and Gentry – Many wealthy landowners supported King Charles I, providing financial and military backing. He was the Lawful ruler.
- Experienced Military Leaders – Royalists had skilled commanders like Prince Rupert of the Rhine.
- Cavalry Superiority – Royalist cavalry, led by Prince Rupert, was initially highly effective.
- Strongholds in the West and North – The Royalists controlled key areas, including Oxford, their capital.
Plus, he was ultimately the legitamate KING of the nation.
Prince Rupert was Frederick V / The winter King’s son - he burned brum
What was the first key battle Parliament won in the first civil war?
Battle of Marston Moor (1644)
Parliament’s army had a stronger position and was able to outmaneuver the Royalists.
Cromwell’s cavalry played a key role in crushing the Royalist flanks, especially on the right wing.
Prince Rupert, leading the Royalist cavalry, was defeated and forced to retreat, leaving the Royalists vulnerable.
What were the outcomes of Marston Moor?
The battle was a turning point in the Civil War, leading to Parliament’s control of the North of England.
It boosted Cromwell’s reputation and solidified his role as a key figure in Parliament’s military success.
The Royalist forces suffered heavy losses, losing a significant portion of their army.
HOWEVER, THEY FAILED TO CAPITALISE ON THIS VICTORY ALLOWING ROYALIST RESISTANCE TO CONTINUE, this lead to the formation of the NMA.
What was the most significant outcome of Marston Moor?
In the aftermath, the failure to effectively exploit the victory led to the formation of the New Model Army (NMA) in late 1645, a more professional and disciplined force that would become central to Parliament’s eventual success.
The NMA was more organised and soldiers were promoted on Merit and commitment to absoloute victory meaning higher ranked officers were deadlier, stronger and more commited than previously.
What was the Second Key victory for Parliament in the First Civil War?
Battle of Naseby (1645)
The new Parliamentarian New Model Army, led by Cromwell’s cavalry, decisively outflanked and overwhelmed the Royalists leading to a complete collapse of Charles’ battalion.
King Charles I was unable to provide leadership on the battlefield, and his forces were overwhelmed.
What was the outcome of Naseby?
The Royalists suffered heavy losses, including King Charles’s personal baggage, which contained valuable documents and the royal army’s artillery as well as crucial plans.
This loss essentially ended the First Civil War.
The Parliamentarian victory at Naseby boosted Cromwell’s and Fairfax’s reputations and solidified the New Model Army’s role in future campaigns.
What happened between Naseby and the end of the first Civil War?
The few territories still held by royalists were collapsed by the NMA.
How did the First Civil War end?
Charles surrendered to Scottish forces in hope they would give him a better settlement than parliament would.
They handed him back to parliament who placed him under house arrest. The remaining royalist forces surrendered by 1646.
Why did Parliament win the first Civil War?
- Control of London – Political, financial, and military hub with key resources and manpower.
- Superior Financial Resources – Parliament controlled wealthy regions and trade, including taxation and loans from the City of London. Merchants also supported them.
- Naval Supremacy – The Parliamentarians controlled the navy, blocking Royalist reinforcements and supplies.
- New Model Army (1645) – A disciplined, professional, and well-led force under Oliver Cromwell and Sir Thomas Fairfax. They formed after the victory of Marston Moor.
- Effective Leadership – Strong commanders like Cromwell and Fairfax outperformed Royalist generals.
- Scottish Alliance (1643 Solemn League and Covenant) – Scottish forces bolstered Parliament’s military strength.
- Religious and Political Unity – A shared cause against absolute monarchy and for Protestantism helped maintain morale.
- Royalist Weaknesses – Charles I’s indecisiveness, lack of resources, and internal divisions weakened his position.
- Key Battle Victories – Major wins at Marston Moor (1644) and Naseby (1645) crippled Royalist forces.
Regardless of his loss in the First Civil War, why was Charles still in a decent position?
As king he was still regarded as essential to a lasting settlement. Charles knew this and abused it to his advantage until 1648.
Despite working together to defeat Charles I on the basis of the Solemn league and Covenant there was increasing tension within.
What was the Solemn League and Covanent?
In 1643, after Charles’s conflict with Parliament in England (leading to the English Civil War), the Covenanters in Scotland signed the Solemn League and Covenant, an agreement between Parliament and the Scottish Covenanters.
It was a military and religious alliance, where the Scots promised to support Parliament against Charles in return for a guarantee of Presbyterianism in England.
They were crucial in the Civil War providing support from the North taking key strongholds like Newcastle and York.
BROUGHT 22,000 ARMY OF SCOTS INTO THE WAR
Why did tension arise in the Solemn League and Covanent after the First Civil War?
After Royalist defeat, Scots had expected that parliament would bring Presbyterianism to England for 3 years as agreed originally (to allow itself to establish).
Cromwell and other MPs saw this as a threat to their religious freedom and so didn’t follow through leading to tension within the Covenant Solemn league.
How many people directly died in the First Civil War?
62,000 - another 100,000 indirectly (from disease, starvation etc).
In Naseby, what was the significance of Charles’ baggage?
Charles’ baggage was lost and taken by the NMA.
It had plans, artillery and also the “treaty of cessation” where he was preparing to call support from European / Irish Catholics.
What was the state of parliament after the first civil war?
By the end of the First English Civil War (1646), Parliament was deeply divided between Presbyterians and Independents.
The Presbyterians, who dominated Parliament, sought a negotiated settlement with Charles I and a national Presbyterian Church.
While the Independents, backed by the New Model Army, opposed making peace and demanded greater religious freedom.
Tensions grew as the Army refused to disband, fearing Presbyterian control, while Charles I exploited these divisions by negotiating with both sides.
This factionalism ultimately led to the Second Civil War (1648), the Army’s takeover of Parliament (Pride’s Purge, 1648), and Charles I’s execution in 1649.
The Political Presbyterians were the most influential group in Parliament. Most of the country would have favoured them because of their peace policy. The country was weary of war and wanted peace.
Despite the Parliamentary victory and Charles I capture, why was the First Civil War relatively inconclusive?
- The Parliamentary side had no man who could simply claim he was leader - this led to factions forming.
What did independents believe after the first civil war?
The Independents, supported by the New Model Army, opposed any peace with the king, viewing him as untrustworthy. They demanded greater religious freedom and the establishment of a more decentralized church structure (congregationalism). As the war had shown, they were committed to limiting the monarch’s power and restructuring England’s political and religious systems.
They had a vision of republicanism and religious liberty that could not tolerate a return to royal rule.
What were the Newcastle Propositions?
Newcastle propositions, 1646
The Newcastle Propositions (1646) were terms presented by the political Presbyterians to Charles I.
They aimed to limit royal power and establish a Presbyterian Church in England
Charles delayed his response, hoping to exploit divisions within Parliament, ultimately leading to further conflict and his eventual downfall.
Why did the NMA refuse to disband after the first civil war?
Fearing that Parliament (dominated by Presbyterians) would disband it without addressing soldiers’ grievances over pay (owed £3 million by parliament).
Plus they did not want a Presbytarian dominanted country to emerge.
This meant it began to turn against the Presbytarianism in England and Parliament.
What were the 5 key terms in the Newcastle Propositions?
- Religion – England would adopt Presbyterianism for three years.
- Royal Power – Parliament would control the military for 20 years.
- Royal Advisors – The King’s ministers would be chosen by Parliament.
- Punishment of Royalists – Leading Royalists would face punishment.
- Triennial Act - This would remain (ship money limitations)
What were the heads of proposal?
The Heads of Proposals (1647) were a set of settlement terms drafted by the New Model Army to end the conflict with Charles I. Key points included:
- Regular payments to the army and parliamentary control over military finances.
- Reform of representation, making the House of Commons more representative and less dependent on the king’s influence.
- Parliamentary control over the army and navy, reducing the king’s power.
- Act of Oblivion: a conditional amnesty for some royalists in exchange for allegiance to Parliament, with harsher treatment for the most extreme royalists.
The settlement aimed to preserve the monarchy with significant limitations on royal power.
How did Charles’ blow the Newcastle Propositions?
However, Charles escaped Hampton Court in 1647 and started negotiations with the Scots.
This was known as “The Engagement”.
What was “the engagement”
The Engagement, 1647
After his escape, Charles’ arranged a secret agreement with the Engagers, a factor of the Scottish Covenanters who were disappointed with their alliance with the English parliament.
Charles agreed to have a 3 year period of Presbyterianism in return for the Scots help to invade England against parliament and restore him to power.
What did the threat of a Scottish Invasion do back in England?
hardened the parliamentarians and the army. It reunited them after all the religious debates within and led to the Vote of No Addresses.
What was the Vote Of No Addresses?
In Jan 1648 (one month after the engagement) parliament passed the Vote Of No Addresses which stated that there would be no further negotiation with Charles.
Summarise why the Second Civil War started?
The Second English Civil War (1648) was sparked by Charles I’s secret negotiations with the Scots, in which he promised to establish Presbyterianism in England in exchange for Scottish military support.
This led to the Scottish invasion of England in July 1648, aiming to restore Charles to the throne.
At the same time, Royalist uprisings broke out in parts of England, including Wales and Kent, in support of Charles.
However, the New Model Army quickly defeated the Scots at the Battle of Preston in August 1648 and crushed the Royalist uprisings. Despite initial hopes of a Royalist resurgence, Charles was captured again, and his cause was irreparably weakened, leading to his trial and execution in 1649.
What was the Windsor Prayer meeting?
Windsor Prayer meeting, 1648
A pivotal moment in the New Model Army’s radicalization.
The meeting saw growing support for radical groups like the Levellers who advocated for equality. Especially as this was DURING the 2nd civil war so hatred against Charles and the realisation social upheaval was occuring was growing.
While Cromwell and Ireton resisted extreme Leveller demands, they increasingly pushed extreme ideas.
They declared Charles I the “man of blood,” blaming him for all the violence.
This spiritual framing gave moral justification for trying and executing the king.
Who were the levellers?
A radical, London based political group. Led by figures like John Lilburne they wanted legal equality, the abolishment of the monarchy and religious freedom.
They were strongly anti - monarchy.
What was the agreement of the people?
Agreement of the People - 1647
- Manifesto highlighting what they wanted.
- For instance - a complete reform of Parliament.
- Pushed at the Putney Debates.
How did the Levellers influence common people?
They pushed petitions signed by thousands. Their petitions, processions and pamphlets show how politics in the period moved beyond the control of the traditional political nation and onto the streets of London.
Despite their support from common people, what did the Levellers realise and how did they fix it?
The leveller leadership realised that without the backing of the army they had no chance of influencing the post - war settlement. They exploited lower NMA ranked officials who were worried that they might be cut short in a settlement.
The levellers provided a wide threat to Cromwell and top leaders as they were exploiting and worsening divisions over a post war settlement.
What was the key difference in views between Cromwell and the Levellers?
The NMA leaders, while also anti-monarchical, were more focused on stability and were willing to negotiate with the monarchy for a moderate republican solution.
The Levellers viewed this as a betrayal of their vision for a more radical and inclusive democratic future.
What were the Putney Debates?
Putney Debates, 1647
Called by Cromwell to deal with the growing support for Levellers - especially in the lower ranks of the NMA (who were scared of being forgotten).
They were a series of political debates between Leveller leaders (e.g. John Lilburne) and New Model Army officers (e.g. Cromwell & Ireton) about England’s future after the Civil War.
What was discussed at the Putney Debates?
Suffrage: Levellers wanted universal male vote; NMA leaders wanted it limited to property owners.
Government: Levellers pushed for a republic with a written constitution (“Agreement of the People”); Army leaders preferred a reformed monarchy or controlled republic.
What was the outcome of the Putney Debates?
No agreement reached. Leveller ideas rejected as too radical.
Undermined by Charles I’s escape from Hampton Court, which triggered the Second Civil War and forced unity in the army.
BUT, it showed:
- Shows rise of radical democratic ideas
- Revealed deep divisions in the NMA
- First major debate on modern constitutional democracy in England
What was the fuel to the Religious Radical Groups?
Millenarianism - the belief the world is ending and they needed to prepare society quickly.
Whats a good overlying argument for the build up to the Second Civil War?
“Charles’s betrayal through the Engagement and the threat of renewed civil war pushed the NMA to unify, sidelining Leveller influence. This set the stage for the Windsor Prayer Meeting where the army declared Charles the ‘man of blood,’ leading toward Pride’s Purge and the King’s trial.”
What were the Whitehall Debates?
Talks between Leveller leaders and New Model Army officers (including Cromwell) held after the Second Civil War, aiming to decide England’s political future following the defeat of the King.
What was the most signifcant of the three 2nd civil war debates?
- The first time NMA leaders began to embrace radical ideas.
- Marked the shift from negotiating with Charles to deciding on regicide.
- NMA leaders, influenced by religious radicalism, declared Charles a “man of blood.”
- The Putney Debates (1647) had little outcome and were interrupted by the Engagement.
- The Whitehall Debates (1648) were less revolutionary, as the NMA had already committed to a military-led republic.
Explain the downfall of the Levellers?
In 1649, the levellers including Lilbrune were arrested.
They continued their propaganda war, however, against the Rump and the stronger army. The Rump had enough money to pay the army and army leadership had more determination to clear the levellers as they had fully eradicated royalist forces.
This prevented much uprest from the troops that the levellers feasted on and so leveller influence in the army was effectively over.
What was millenarianism?
**Millenarianism, a belief in the imminent Second Coming of Christ and the establishment of a thousand-year reign of peace, was a key strand in English Puritanism during the 17th century. **
Puritan millenarian ideas, which viewed the tumult of the English Civil War as a sign of God’s plan, significantly influenced radical movements like the Levellers and Diggers.
Who were 5th Monarchists?
The term “Fifth Monarchists” referred to their belief that Christ would establish his fifth monarchy, following the four great empires described in the Bible
Their ideas contributed to the broader radical currents of the time and the eventual execution of Charles I.
Leader was Thomas Harrison
What happened in the Second Civil War?
Essentially, all the royalist uprisings were supressed.
The Scots tried to invade by going to Preston, but lost in 1648.
The NMA were just better.
What did the Battle Of Preston mean for Cromwell and Fairfax?
The NMA crushed their opponents in the second civil war which ended in 1649. This victory confirmed to Cromwell and Fairfax that they had divine protection from God.
What was the final attempt at settlement?
The settlement (Known as the Newport treaty in 1648) was pressured upon Charles, however he stalled trying to play any divisions between parliament, the army and the Scots. He failed and the NMA were not happy with parliament - leading to Pride’s Purge.
Why did MPs seek a final settlement after the second civil war?
Scared by increasing radicalisation of the army, the political independent MPs who originally supported the army, sought settlement with the king. They were desperate to end the war and parliament revoked the Vote Of No Addresses.
What did the Treaty Of Newport mean for the NMA?
The prospect of a treaty between Parliament and Charles forced the army to act. At the Windsor Prayer meeting in April 1648, the NMA demanded that parliament put Charles on trial for him to be brought to justice -> this is known as the remonstrance.
How did Parliament respond to the Windsor Prayer Meeting?
Parliament refused to put Charles on trial, instead they continued and voted to continue the Newport Treaty.
In response, the remonstrance called for a purge of parliament and the king’s trial to follow.
What was Prides Purge?
Prides Purge, 1648
A vote in parliament to continue the Newport treaty with Charles made the army act on their threats from the Windsor Prayer meeting.
The next day, the NMA members like Thomas Pride arrested all MPs who they suspected were in favour of keeping Charles.
The remaining MPs formed the Rump Parliament and would bring Charles I to trial.
What happened to Parliament after Prides Purge?
After Pride’s Purge in 1648, the Rump Parliament formed which was increasingly radical, with many MPs now aligned with the New Model Army and its leadership, including Oliver Cromwell.
The purge removed moderates and those sympathetic to Charles I, leaving behind a more radical group determined to take stronger action against the king
What was the basis for regicide?
The Rump Parliament and the New Model Army saw Charles I as a tyrant, responsible for starting the Civil War, attempting to impose absolute monarchy, and rejecting peace settlements.
The key justification for regicide was that Charles I had broken his social contract with the people and acted against the public good.
His actions were seen as warranting execution due to the threat he posed to the nation’s future.
What was the trial of Charles’ initally an attempt to do?
Initially, the trial was an attempt to force Charles to come to a settlement, but Charles refused the legitimacy of the court believing it did not have the authority to trial a monarch.
Faced by Charles’ continued stubbornness, Cromwell was reinforced in his belief that it had become a necessity to permanently remove Charles to settle the nation.
Summarise Charles’ and his attitude to settlement.
Quite literally EVERY settlement put infront of him he refused, delayed or claimed it wasn’t legitimate.
It would be unfair to say both Parliament AND the NMA did not try to NOT kill Charles…
What is a good overall argument about the reason for regicide?
Regicide was not enacted out of ideological fervor alone but out of a grim strategic calculation—removing Charles was the only way to prevent further war and secure the revolution’s gains.
His execution was, in this sense, not merely a radical act but a measure of necessity, dictated by his own persistent defiance and the need to establish a new, stable order.
What did Millenariansim do for regicides?
Millenarianism provided a religious framework that justified their radical actions.
Summarise Cromwell in the Pre Protectorate Period.
A deeply religious yet pragmatic leader, often torn between radical ideals and the need for control — making him seem like an “ideological schizophrenic”. For instance:
- He believed deeply in religious freedom, but crushed the Levellers and Diggers when their visions threatened order.
- He opposed monarchy and tyranny, yet ended up ruling as Lord Protector with near-monarchical powers.
- Torn between ideals and pragmatism
- Acting radically at times, and then conservatively at others
“A man of deep convictions, yet driven by necessity”
What was self denying ordinance?
1645
The ordinance aimed to separate military and political power by preventing members of the English Parliament from holding military commands while also serving as members of Parliament.
It set in motion the conditions that allowed for the NMA formation by removing poor leaders and unifying generals.
What declaration showed that the NMA were becoming uneasy with parliament?
Declaration of the Army, 1647
The army issued the Declaration of the Army demanding better treatment for soldiers and challenging Parliament’s refusal to address their pay and grievances.
How much did the Presbytarian dominated parliament owe the army?
Almost £3,000,000
Who were the diggers?
As with the levellers, the diggers were another response to the political, economic and social effects of the Civil wars. Their moment was after the execution of the king in 1649.
The diggers established a community outside London and saw communes as a solution to social inequalities.
Unlike the levellers, the diggers believed in absoloute social and political equality.
They had significantly less followers than the levellers and they ultimately failed after being destroyed by NMA troops.
What influenced both levellers and digger ideas?
Both the Levellers and the Diggers were inspired by millenarian ideas, seeing the English Civil War as part of a divine plan to create a more just and egalitarian (equal rights) society.
The Levellers’ emphasis on political reform and equality and the Diggers’ radical communalism were influenced by the belief that the Second Coming was near and that this divine event would lead to a transformation of social and economic structures.
Who were 5th monarchists?
The term “Fifth Monarchists” referred to their belief that Christ would establish his Fifth Monarchy, following the four great empires described in the Bible .
They saw the turmoil of the English Civil War and the execution of King Charles I as signs that the old order was being replaced by a divinely ordained republican government, in which Christ would rule directly. The group called for the abolition of the monarchy and aristocracy and advocated for a society led by godly rulers who would follow divine law
summarise why the NMA timeline of being political?
- Self Denying Ordinance, 1645 - seperated the army from parliament essentially paving the way for a more focussed - less political NMA.
- Agrievances over pay (owed £3m) , indemnity and political reform created worries.
- Declaration of the army, 1647 highlights the concern over pay and conditions.
- Following the religious debates like Putney / Windsor and Whitehall the army became backed by religious radical ideas - millernariansm justifying there future actions
- Prides purge, 1648 - created the rump parliament of about 90MPs - more aligned with the NMA.
