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N2250 > Part 2 > Flashcards

Part 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What does Quantitative Methodology emanate?

A

Positivist/post-positivist perspective

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2
Q

What is the focus of Quantitative Methodology?

A

predominant ‘biomedical’ focus

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3
Q

What does Quantitative Methodology use objectivity, logic, experimental/scientific processes to do?

A
  • compare
  • infer causation
  • predict outcomes
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4
Q

What is Descriptive Quantitative research?

A

structured observations or survey (or both) used to describe a phenomenon, situation, group or characteristic

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5
Q

What is Exploratory Quantitative research?

A

to gain new insights, discover new ideas & increase knowledge about a phenomenon (usually conducted when little is known about a topic)

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6
Q

What is Causal Quantitative research?

A

experimenting (statistically speaking) to assess cause and effect

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7
Q

What is the purpose of a research design?

A
  • answer research question
  • control for/understand biases
  • direct analysis
  • direct interpretation
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8
Q

What does the design of a research project do?

A
  • directs the research process
  • framework of who, what, when, where & how
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9
Q

What is a Variable?

A

a measurable characteristic that varies among subjects

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10
Q

What are the different types of variables?

A
  • independent
  • dependent
  • extraneous variable or covariate
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11
Q

What is an Independent Variable?

A

interventions or presumed cause
ex. salt intake
ex. self-care symptom management

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12
Q

What is a Dependent Variable?

A

outcome or presumed effect
ex. blood pressure reading
ex. quaility of life

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13
Q

What is an Extraneous Variable or Covariate?

A

alternative or other possible causes
ex. Sedentary
ex. severity of illness

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14
Q

What is Control?

A

the measures that the researcher uses to hold the conditions of the study uniform and avoid possibe impingement of bias on the dependent variable or outcome

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15
Q

What are the different ways to control for Extraneous Variables? (6)

A
  • utilizing a homogenous sample
  • random assignment to groups
  • consistent data-collection procedure
  • minimize threats to internal validitiy
  • using experimental design (manipulation of independent variable)
  • statistical manipulation
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16
Q

What is a Natural Setting?

A

uncontrolled, real life situation

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17
Q

What is Partially Controlled?

A

manipulated or modified in some way

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18
Q

What is Highly controlled?

A

Artifical environment for sole purpose of doing research

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19
Q

What is Internal Validity?

A

the extent to which the observed results represent the truth in the population we are studying and, thus, are not due to methodological errors.

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20
Q

What is External Validity?

A

the extent to which the results of a study are generalizable to patients in our daily practice, especially for the population that the sample is thought to represent

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21
Q

If a study shows a high degree of internal validity, what does that mean?

A

We can conclude we have stronge evidence of causaility

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22
Q

If a study shows a high degree of External validity, what does that mean?

A

we can conclude we have little or no evidence of causality

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23
Q

What are threats to Internal Validity? (6)

A
  • selection bias
  • instrumentation
  • history
  • maturation
  • testing
  • mortality
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24
Q

What do threats to external validity do?

A

compromise our confidence in stating whether the study’s results are applicable to other groups

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25
Q

What are the threats to external validity?

A
  • selection effects
  • reactivity
  • measurement effects
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26
Q

What study designs control threats to validity?

A
  • Experimental: control most
  • Quasi-experimental
  • Non-experimental
  • Descriptive
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27
Q

What are the Cause-effect classes?

A
  • experimental
  • Quasi-experimental
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28
Q

What are the Description classes?

A
  • non-experimental
  • descriptive
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29
Q

What is an Experimental Design?

A
  • there is an intervention that is controlled or delivered
  • there is an experimental and control group
  • there is a random assignment to groups
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30
Q

What is Random Assignment to groups?

A
  • internal validity issue
  • equal chance that extraneous variables exist in both groups
  • experimental/control group assignment
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31
Q

What is Random Selection from population to sample?

A
  • external validity issue
  • equals extraneous variables in the sample that are true for the population
  • sampling strategy
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32
Q

What are the strengths of Experimental Design?

A
  • establish causality/causal direction
  • control
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33
Q

What are the limitations of Experimental Design?

A
  • may be difficult to implement
  • generalizability (external validity) may be low
  • not ethical for some conditions
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34
Q

What is a Quasi-Experimental Design?

A
  • there is an intervention that is controlled or delivered
  • there is an experimental group with or without a control group
  • there is typically no random assignment to groups
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35
Q

What are the Strengths of Quasi-Experimental Design?

A
  • establish causality/causal direction
  • control
  • practical, real world adaptability
  • people not always willing to be randomized, so this works for them
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36
Q

What are the limitations of Quasi-Experimental Design?

A
  • cannot make clear cause-and-effect statements
  • generalizability (external validity) may be low
  • not ethical for some conditions
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37
Q

What is Non-experimental Research?

A

research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable

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38
Q

What are the two types of non-experimental research?

A
  • Survey Studies
  • relationship/difference studies
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39
Q

What are Survey Studies?

A
  • structured interview
  • self-report: Questionnaires, online surveys/computer-assisted
  • usually a large number of respondents
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40
Q

What is the purpose of Survey Studies?

A

to obtain info about the prevalence, distribution, and interrelations of phenomena within a population

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41
Q

What are the advantages of Survey Studies?

A
  • flexible & broad in scope
  • data can be collected in a number of ways
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42
Q

What are the disadvantages of Survey Studies?

A
  • data relatively superficial, rarely probes deeply into human complexities
  • low response rates vs. number of participants needed
  • limitations with self-report
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43
Q

What is the purpose of Relationship/Difference Studies?

A

to look at the relationships or differences between variables that can provide a deeper insight into a phenomenon

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44
Q

What are the different Relationship/Difference Studies?

A
  • correlational
  • developmental
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45
Q

What are the different types of Development Relationship/Differences Studies?

A
  • cross-sectional
  • longitudinal/prospective
  • retrospective/ex post facto
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46
Q

What are Correlation studies?

A
  • involves the measurement & determination of the relationship between 2 variables
  • cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect
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47
Q

What is Postive Correlation?

A

one variable increases, scores on the other variable also increases (r values ranges from 0 to +1)

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48
Q

What is Negative Correlation?

A

increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the second variable (r values ranges from -1 to 0)

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49
Q

What is the Correlation Coefficient (r)?

A

numerical index that reflects the relationship between two variables. Value: between -1 and +1

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50
Q

What are the advantages of Correlational Studies?

A
  • can be applied to many populations, focus on a wide range of topics, & info can be used for many purposes
  • a framework for exploring the relationship between variables that cannot be inherently manipulated
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51
Q

What are the disadvantages of Correlation studies?

A
  • correlation does not equal causation
  • no randomization in the sampling procedures because the study deals with pre-existing groups; therefore, generalizability is decreased
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52
Q

What is Cross sectional Research?

A

examine the relationship between variables of interest as they exist in a defined population at one particular time

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53
Q

What are the advantages of Cross-sectional Research?

A
  • fast
  • less expensive
  • usually involve large number of participants
  • can collect a large number of variables
54
Q

What are the disadvantages of Cross-sectional Research?

A
  • no causal association
  • harder to infer changes over time
  • threat to internal/external validity
55
Q

What is Prospective (longitudinal cohort) Research?

A

one or more groups are followed across time and compared on one or more variables

56
Q

What are the Strengths of Prospective Research?

A
  • time line established
  • large number of participants
  • large number of variables
57
Q

What are the limitations of Prospective Research?

A
  • very expensive, long term follow-up needed
  • large loss to follow-up possible
  • threat to validity
58
Q

What is Retrospective Design Research?

A

an effect (outcome or DV) observed in the present is linked to a potential cause that occured in the past

59
Q

What are the strengths of Retrospective Research?

A
  • fewer participants
  • large number of variables
60
Q

What are the limitations of Retrospective Research?

A
  • very difficult to find adequate control group
  • beware of alternative hypothesis as the reason for documented relationship
  • threats to validity
61
Q

What is an Accessible population?

A

aggregate of cases that conform to designated (eligibility) criteria and are accessible for a study

62
Q

What is Sampling?

A

Process of selecting subjects (elements) to represent a population

63
Q

What is Nonprobability Sampling?

A

does not involve selection of elements at random; is rarely representative of the population

64
Q

What is Probability Sampling?

A
  • involves random selection of elements
  • allows researchers to estimate the magnitude of sampling error
65
Q

What is important to remeber about Random probability?

A
  • Random probability does not equal randomization of participants
  • randomization increases internal validity
  • random sampling increases external validity
66
Q

What are the types of Probability sampling?

A
  • simple random
  • stratified random
  • cluster
  • systematic
67
Q

What is Simple Random Sampling (SRS)?

A
  • needs a sampling frame
  • each element has an equal & independent probabillity of selection
  • uses a random number generator, random number table etc.
68
Q

What is Systematic Sampling?

A
  • needs sampling frame
  • uses the frame’s order to locate element
  • faster than simple but may introduce bias IF the frame is arranged in a way that coincides with sampling occurence
69
Q

What is Stratified Random Sampling?

A
  • the population is first divided into two or more strata, from which elements are randomly selected
  • aim is to enhance representativeness
70
Q

What is Disproportional Sampling?

A
  • a probability sampling technique used to address the difficulty researchers encounter with stratified samples of unequal sizes
  • requires “adjustments” or “weighting” to arrive at estimates of overall population values
71
Q

What is Multi-stage Cluster Sampling?

A
  • involves selecting broad groups (clusters) rather than selecting individuals, and is typically the first stage of a multistage approach
  • less accurate than simple or stratified random sampling
  • BUT more practical than other types of proability sampling
72
Q

What are the different types of Non-probability Sampling?

A
  • convenience
  • quota
  • purposive
  • network/snowball
  • consecutive
73
Q

What is Convenience Sampling?

A
  • use elements available at time & place of study
  • does not require sampling frame
  • can be fast and efficient but may not provide representative sample - people who are readily available might be atypical of the population
74
Q

What are Quota Sampling?

A

You first divide the population into strata and then recruit sample units until you reach your quota (predetermined number)

75
Q

What is Consecutive sampling?

A

recruiting all people from an accessible population over a specific time interval

76
Q

What is Purposive Sampling?

A

uses researchers’ knowledge about a population to hand sample members

77
Q

What is Heterogeneous Sample?

A

participants are diverse

78
Q

What is Homogeneous Sample?

A
  • participants are similar
  • generalizability may be limited to people who are similar to your target population
79
Q

Describe the Sample Size:

A
  • estimated before the study to determine number of elements required to demonstrate treatment effect
  • a large sample size does not make up for non-representative sample
80
Q

What occurs if the sample size is too small?

A

can result in type II error or low “power”: non-significant result due to too few observations rather than because intervention is not effective/no relationship between IV/DV

81
Q

What occurs if the sample size is too large?

A

unnecessary cost without added benefit to study results

82
Q

What is Power?

A

the likelihood that a researcher will find a significant result (an effect) in a sample if such an effect exists in the population being studied
- if there is not enough power in a study, it would not matter how big the effect size
- commonly set a 0.80 (1-beta)

83
Q

What is Power Analysis?

A

procedure used to estimate sample size requirements prior to undertaking a study (to diminish the likelihood of type II error)
- not usually required for pilot studies

84
Q

What is Alpha?

A

probability of making a type I error (commonly set at 0.05 or 0.01)

85
Q

What is Beta?

A

probability of making a type II error (usually 0.2 or 20%)

86
Q

What is Effect Size?

A

measure of the magnitude of the effect (group difference) is

87
Q

Describe a Small Effect Size:

A
  • correlations around 0.20
  • requires larger sample size
88
Q

Describe Medium Effect Size:

A
  • correlations around 0.40
  • requires medium sample size
89
Q

Describe Large Effect Size:

A
  • correlations around 0.60
  • requires smaller sample size
90
Q

What are the different Data Collection Methods?

A
  • biological or physiological
  • observational
  • Questionnaries, surveys/instruments
  • records or available data
  • interviews
91
Q

What are the different types of Biological/Physiological Measures?

A
  • physical
  • anatomical
  • chemical
  • mircobiological
92
Q

What are the advantages of Biological/Physiological Measures?

A
  • objective
  • precise
  • sensitive
93
Q

What are the disadvantages of Biological/Physiological Measures? (5)

A
  • can be invasive
  • expensive
  • hard to obtain
  • may need special training
  • may cause reactive effects
94
Q

What are the different informations that Observational Methods can obtain? (5)

A
  • patient’s conditions
  • verbal communication
  • non-verbal communication
  • activities
  • environmental conditions
95
Q

What are the advantages of Observation methods?

A

ideal for studying complex interactions & measuring people’s actions/reactions

96
Q

What are the disadvantages of Observation methods?

A
  • reactivity effects
  • observer bias
97
Q

What are the advantages of Records?

A

usually inexpensive, historical

98
Q

What are the disadvantages of Records?

A
  • availability
  • ethics
  • bias
  • missing data
99
Q

What are the advantages of Questionnaries?

A
  • fast
  • economical
  • variety
  • participants can remain anonymous
100
Q

What are the disadvantages of Questionnaries? (5)

A
  • breadth vs. depth
  • response rates
  • recall bias
  • social desirability bias
  • incomplete items
101
Q

What is Social Desirability Response Bias?

A

giving answers that are congruent with prevailing social values

102
Q

What are Extreme Responses?

A

selection of extreme alternatives

103
Q

What is Internal Reliability?

A

Stability within an instrument - looking to ensure items measure the same attribute/construct

104
Q

How is Internal Reliability measured?

A

Cronbach Alpha statis - normal range is between 0 to +1, higher values are associated with greater internal reliability

105
Q

What is the Test-retest correlation coefficient?

A

stability over time - ability to obtain similar scores in different situations/repeated testing

106
Q

What is the Reliability Coefficient?

A

is a way of confirming how accurate a test by giving it to the same subject more than once and determining if there’s a correlation and similarity between the two scores
- over 0.80 as a result is good

107
Q

What is Interrater Reliability?

A

the degree of agreement among independent observers who rate, code, or assess the same phenomenon

108
Q

What are the 3 types of Content Validity?

A
  • Content
  • criterion-related
  • construct
109
Q

What is Content Validity?

A

evaluates if the test is fully representative of what it aims to measure

110
Q

What is Criterion-related Validity?

A

measures if the results accurately measure the outcome they are designed to measure

111
Q

What is Concurrent Validity?

A

shows you the extent of the agreement between two measures taken at the same time
- subtype of criterion-related

112
Q

What is Predictive Validity?

A

ability to predict future behaviour/future correlation with a measure of the same concept

113
Q

What is Construct Validity?

A

the degree to which the test measures the concept that it’s intended to measure

114
Q

What is Convergent Validity?

A

how closely a test is related to other tests that measure the same thing

115
Q

What is Divergent Validity?

A

Shows that concepts or measurements that might be in the study is different/unrelated to what you are actually studying

116
Q

Describe the difference between Validity and Reliability?

A
  • validity is about the appropriateness of a test
  • reliability is about the consistency of the scores produced
117
Q

What is Capture Variability (Variance)?

A

how the scores vary across participants and identify what is typical and atypical among the data

118
Q

What is Data Reduction?

A

summarizing or describing the characterisitcs of a set of data

119
Q

What is the Mean?

A

the average value from a data set

120
Q

What is Standard Deviation (SD)?

A
  • the most common measure of variance
  • describes how far the values stray from the mean
121
Q

What is Inferential Statisitcs?

A
  • allows you to make predictions (“inferences”) from that data
  • you take data from samples and make generalizations about a population
122
Q

What is the P-value?

A

the probability that the results were due to chance and not based on your program/intervention

123
Q

What occurs if the P-value is low?

A

the lower the p-value, the most likely it is that a difference occurred as a result of your program

124
Q

What occurs if the P-value is less than the alpha value?

A

you can conclude that the difference you observed is statistically significant

125
Q

What is the Confidence Interval?

A

a range around a measurement that conveys how precise the measurement is

126
Q

What is the long-held minimum threshold for acceptance?

A

95% or p < 0.05, meaning that the threshold is considered statistically significant

127
Q

What does Statistically Significant mean?

A

indicates that the results were unlikely to be due to chance

128
Q

What does the absence of statistically significant mean?

A

it does not mean that the finding is unimportant

129
Q

What is Mixed Methods Research?

A

a procedure for collecting, analyzing and “mixing” both quatitative and qualitative research methods in a single study to understand a research problem

130
Q

What is Inductive Reasoning?

A
  • details to general picture
  • foundation of most qualitative research
  • theory generating
131
Q

What is Deductive Reasoning?

A
  • general picture to specific explanantions
  • foundation of most quantitative research
  • theory testing
132
Q

What are the different types of Mixed Methods Designs?

A
  • Convergent Parallel Design
  • Explanatory Sequential Design
  • Exploratory Sequential Design

N2250 (2 decks)

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