Part 1: Outdoor Fundamentals Flashcards
1
Q
Define belaying
A
The technique of securing your rope partner in case of a fall
2
Q
What is the Climbing Code?
A
A set of guidelines to help people conduct themselves safely in the mountains.
3
Q
List the Climbing Code guidelines
A
- Leave the trip itinerary with a responsible person.
- Carry the necessary clothing, food, and equipment.
- A climbing party of three is the minimum unless adequate support is available.
- On glaciers, a minimum of two rope teams is recommended.
- Rope up on all exposed places and for all glacier travel. Anchor all belays.
- Keep the party together, and obey the leader or majority rule.
- Never climb beyond your ability and knowledge.
- Never let judgment be overruled by desire when choosing the route or deciding whether to turn back.
- Follow the precepts of sound mountaineering as set forth in books of recognized merit.
- Behave at all times in a manner that reflects favorably upon mountaineering, including adherence to Leave No Trace principles.
4
Q
What are the enemies of comfort?
A
Precipitation, wind, heat and cold
5
Q
Why does cotton kill?
A
Comfortable to wear when dry cotton loses insulating qualities when wet, absorbs many times it’s weight in water and generally takes a long time to dry. Can contribute to hypothermia. It also chafes skin when wet.
6
Q
What is a base layer?
A
The layer of clothing next to your skin, allows perspiration to evaporate, keeping your skin warm and dry.
7
Q
What is a mid layer and what should it do?
A
Mid layer strap warm air close to your body. The thicker the layer of trapped air the warmer you will be.
8
Q
What is a shell layer and what does it do?
A
Shells protect mid layers from wind and precipitation. These could be waterproof breathable hard shells, soft shells or wind shells a depending on the conditions.
9
Q
What is a belay jacket?
A
A jacket you can get in and out of quickly when you stop moving in cold conditions. An insulated jacket sized to fit over all other layers and preserve warmth at lower exertion.
10
Q
How can being dehydrated make you cold?
A
Dehydration results in low blood volume
11
Q
Why do your extremities get cold first?
A
Your body, when cold, reduces blood flow to the arms and legs to warm other more vital areas.
12
Q
What are the steps for properly fitting and adjusting a backpack?
A
- *loosen all straps then shoulder the pack
1) position the middle of the hip belt over the top of the hip bones. Raise your shoulders and firmly tighten the waist belt. Virtually ALL OF THE WEIGHT should be on your hips as the shoulder straps are slack.
2) tighten the shoulder straps so they form a smooth arc over your shoulders. Minimum weight should be carried by the shoulders.
3) gently tension the shoulder stabilizer straps to bring the pack close to the body.
Tension any hip belt tensioners or sternum straps.
13
Q
When putting on your pack where should you feel you are carrying most of the weight?
A
Your hips.
14
Q
When you put on your backpack you should adjust the straps from _____ to ______.
A
Bottom to top (hips to head)
15
Q
When packing your backpack heavier items should be packed where?
A
As close to your back as possible
16
Q
List The Mountaineers 10 essentials
A
1) Navigation
2) Headlamp
3) Sun Protection
4) First Aid
5) Knife
6) Fire
7) Shelter
8) Extra Food
9) Extra Water
10) Extra Clothes
17
Q
What are the 5 essential tools for navigating the backcountry as defined by the mountaineers 10 essentials?
A
1) map
2) altimeter
3) compass
4) Global Positioning System
5) personal locator beacon
18
Q
Why might an altimeter be more useful than a compass in helping you determine where you are?
A
Fog, dark and heavy rain can obscure your vision. With an altimeter and topographic map you only need one more piece of information (trail, a stream, a ridge or bearing to a known location) to accurately self locate.
19
Q
Which item of clothing provides more warmth to weight then any other?
A
A hat
20
Q
What are the four components of the sleep system?
A
Sleeping clothes, a sleeping bag, ground insulation and shelter
21
Q
What are the three cardinal rules for leave no trace camping?
A
1) camp gently -camp in established campsites or durable surfaces whenever possible
2) do not disturb - take only photos, leave only footprints
3) dispose of waste - dispose of human waste 200 feet (75 paces) away from water, trails and campsites. Bury in Forrest’s and blue bag in alpine areas.
22
Q
What is the “campsite triangle”?
A
The campsite triangle is a principal that your tent, your food preparation and eating area and your food storage should be 100’ apart in a triangular configuration
23
Q
Why should you face tent doors to the wind in good conditions and away from the wind in inclimate weather.
A
Facing the door into the wind in good conditions will distend the tent and minimize flapping. Facing the door away from the wind in bad weather will keep rain and snow from blowing inside.
24
Q
Describe the ideal campsite
A
Great views, nearby water source and protection from the elements.
25
Why should you avoid camping in creek beds or gullies?
There is a risk of flooding if conditions change. Always consider the site with an eye for worsening conditions.
26
What are some of the drawbacks of building a snow shelter?
Time, energy expense and you will get wet.
27
What are the benefits of a good snow shelter?
A snow cave or igloo is more secure then a tent.
28
Which method of water filtration kills parasites, bacteria, viruses and purifies?
Boiling
29
Does filtering or boiling remove chemicals?
No. If you are concerned about industrial, agricultural or other chemical contamination move on.
30
What is a carbohydrate?
“Fuel foods”, the easiest food for the body to convert into energy. Found in whole grains, rice, potatoes, cereals, pasta, bread, crackers and granola bars. Also in sugary natural foods like fruit.
31
What does the body do with proteins beyond your bodies requirements?
The body cannot store protein, the excess is either converted to energy or stored as fat.
32
Why do fats make you you feel more satisfied?
They take longer to digest then carbohydrates or protein
33
When chemically treating water in cold climates you need to ______ time before drinking.
Add time. Chemical methods take longer in cold climates, other methods are not effected.
34
List ways to avoid fecal-oral contamination in the backcountry.
- only clean and cook with purified water
- make sure to clean all bottles and hydration devices with treated water, bleach or disinfecting agents
- wash your hands thoroughly
35
When planning a meal for a climbing trip how many calories should you allocate per climber, per day?
4,000 to 5,000 per climber a day due to the high level of exertion.
36
Define SMART in relation to training goals
1) Specific
2) Measurable
3) Action oriented
4) Realistic
5) Time Stamped
37
Define FITT parameters
Frequency
Intensity
Time
Type
38
Define Orientation
Determining your exact position on earth
39
Define Navigation
Guiding yourself to a destination
40
Define Routefinding
Selecting and following the best path to a predetermined destination
41
What are the three principal coordinate systems used to describe location on earth?
- Latitude and longitude
- Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
- Military Grid Reference System (MGRS)
42
Define Scale in relation to maps
The scale of the map is a ratio between measurements on the map and measurements in the real world. (I.e. 1” = 1 mile, 1:63,360 1 map inch is equal to 63,360 actual inches or 1 mile)
43
A scale of 1:24,000 means 1 inch on the map represent ______ mile(s)
.38 miles
44
The 7.5 - minute map is the standard for every US state except ________
Alaska
45
The most common type of USGS topographic map in the us is the _____ series
7.5 minutes series
46
Why would a mountaineer prefer a 7.5 minute map over the older 15 minute map?
7.5 minute maps represent 1/8 degree of latitude and longitude, where a 15 minute map represent 1/4 degree of latitude and longitude. Thus 7.5 offers more detail.
47
Define route plan
A well thought out description of how the party plans on navigating to its objective and back
48
Any linear feature on a map that parallels the direction of travel is called _______
Handrails
49
Define handrails
Any linear feature on a map that parallels the direction of travel that helps a party to stay on route.
50
Give an example of a handrail
Roads, trails, power lines, railroad tracks, fences, borders or meadows, valleys, streams, cliff bands, ridges, and lakeshores
51
A long unmistakable line that always lies in the same direction from the party is described as _______
Baseline
52
Define intentional offset
Intentionally following a bearing that is offset by a defined amount to to the left or right of your true bearing to allow for error and make reaching your final bearing easier
53
Define bearing
The direction from one place to another measured in degrees of angle from true north
54
What is the term describing the difference between true north and the direction of magnetic north?
Magnetic declination
55
What is the current magnetic declination in Southern California?
12 degrees east declination
56
As California is west of the declination line you must add or subtract to to the magnetic bearing?
Add, east of the declination line you would subtract
57
Is Nylon waterproof?
No, it derives the waterproof characteristic from fabrication methods or chemical treatments.
58
Define line position
Line position is knowing that you are along an object on a map - a river, a ridge, a path etc.- but not knowing exactly where along that object you are.
59
Define area position
You know where you are generally in an area but thats about it.
60
Why is UTM more useful when mountaineering
UTM ( universal transverse mercantor) reference lines are much closer together then Lat and Longitude. 1000 meters (.62 miles) to latitudes 2.5 minutes (approx. 2 to 3 miles)
61
Defining navigation by instrument
Following a bearing to a location that may or may not be visible
62
Define true bearing
A measurement of the angle berween the line to true north and the line to the objective
63
Define magnetic bearing
A measurement of the angle between the line to magnetic north and the line to the objective
64
Define turn-around time
That time that you will need to begin your return trip whether or not you have achieved your objective
65
The time that you will need to begin your return trip whether or not you have achieved your objective is called…
Turn around time
66
What is a Datum and why does it matter?
Datum are specific points on earth used as benchmarks for map making. Having the correct datum’s is essential for accurate navigation, using an incorrect datum can lead to being hundreds of feet away from your goal.
67
List a few things that will
Help keep you warm **BESIDES** proper layering
In addition to layering, these tactics can also help with your cold-weather defense:
1. **Manage moisture carefully**. Add additional midlayers that can function with the rest of the system. Add a belay jacket and puffy pants.
2. **Eat more**, starting with a big breakfast. Fat and calories correlate directly with warmth, so keep high-calorie snacks at the ready in a pocket where they won’t freeze and can be eaten gradually.
3. **Drink more water**, even when urinating may be inconvenient. Dehydration results in low blood volume that will make you extra cold.
4. **Manage cold feet and hands**. Rotate wet gloves or mittens and socks with dry ones as needed. Try chemical hand and foot warmers, but to prevent burns, avoid direct skin contact especially while asleep. Monitor for frostbite and have a contingency plan.
5. On a day trip **bring hot water and a stove**.
6. From base layers to one-piece climbing suits, **consider one-piece options for extreme cold**.
7. **Accept being a little cold**, but be vigilant of the line between discomfort and injury.
68
What two questions are the *The Ten Essentials* trying to answer?
**Can I prevent emergencies and respond positively should one occur:**
1. Navigation
2. Headlamp
3. Sun protection
4. First aid
5. Knife
**Am I prepared to safely spend a night—or more—outside:**
6. Fire
7. Shelter
8. Extra food
9. Extra water
10. Extra clothes
69
What is and has been the gold standard in insect repellents since being developed in 1944?
**DEET**
Be aware that DEET is a powerful chemical that can dissolve plastics and synthetic fabrics. While products can be purchased in varying concentrations up to 100 percent, a 30 percent concentration is safer and likely sufficient. For multihour protection use a 30 percent concentration in a time-release formula.
70
Why do you need to be careful when using **DEET**?
Be aware that DEET is a powerful chemical that can dissolve plastics and synthetic fabrics.
71
Why might you consider using Permethrin or Picaridin repellents instead of DEET?
DEET is not very effective at repelling biting flies. Permethrin-treated clothes and picaridin repellents are better against blackflies, deer flies, and gnats.
72
When should you apply Permethrin to your skin?
**NEVER**
For long-lasting use on clothes **only**, never on skin, permethrin is the synthetic chemical analog to the naturally occurring chemical found in chrysanthemum flowers.
73
Available in Europe since 2001 and first registered with the US EPA in 2005, this odorless, nongreasy, non-plastic-melting repellent is preferred by many to DEET.
Picaridin
74
What is the universal signal for “help”?
Three signals from any signaling device, repeated several times in sequence, is universal for “SOS.”
75
What are the 3 “thieves in the night” when it comes to thermal theft?
**Warm air (convection)**. The body continually warms the air around it. Clothes and sleeping bags trap this warm air, slowing its escape to the atmosphere.
**Breathing and sweat (respiration and evaporation)**. People lose about a liter of water through breath and sweat every night. In colder environments, the warm, moist air you breathe out can be a significant form of heat loss.
**Cold ground (conduction)**. Direct contact with cold ground also sucks heat away from the body. Rock and snow are the most conductive surfaces encountered in the wilderness; grass, dry dirt, and forest duff are the least. Camping mattresses or pads help to insulate you from cold ground; look for higher R-values for colder surfaces.
**Radiant heat (infrared radiation)**. The night vision goggles of the movies remind us that every living body has a heat signature from the direct loss of heat through infrared radiation. Radiant heat represents up to 10 percent of our heat loss, and recent innovations that use reflective materials in insulating air mattresses and clothes capture and return some of this heat.
76
When picking a winter camp site what might you glean from a rock-hard or sculpted snow surface?
Rock-hard or sculpted snow surface indicates frequent wind, whereas an area with loose, powdery snow indicates a lee slope where wind-transported snow is deposited.
An area deep in powdery snow may be protected from wind, but the tent may frequently need to be cleared of snow.
77
Why should there be a 3 foot gap between a snow wall and your tent?
Snow will accumulate on the leeward side so you want there to be room for a little deposit to accumulate
78
What are the risks of allowing snow to accumulate on a tent?
- **asphyxiation** if a tent is covered and you are forced to cook inside it may not vent properly
- **tent collapse** if the snow load is too heavy it can break the poles and collapse the tent
79
What are the three methods for determining the fuel level of a cooking gas container?
- Shake and guess
- Float the canister in water (first burping the bottom concavity) and compare the float line against a full canister (some have an index)
- At home, weight the canister on a kitchen scale and subtract the weight of an empty canister to determine the remaining fuel
80
When planning for a trip how much water should you expect to need to boil for cooking and drinking per person assuming you are boiling snow for drinking?
- 2 liters of cooking water a day (1 liter per meal)
- 3 liters of drinking water
Both numbers are per person
81
What can you do to help melt snow faster when boiling?
Add a little liquid water to the pot.
The phase change that is required to turn snow to water requires almost the same amount of energy as bringing it to a full boil and liquid water helps speed heat transfer
82
What are the three types of water born pathogens?
- **parasites** such as amoebas, tapeworms and flatworms. Also, smaller single cell organisms like giardia and cryptosporidium
- **bacteria** ultra small in size this category includes salmonella and e-coli
- **viruses** such as hepatitis a, rotavirus enterovirus and norovirus are exceptionally small and are species specific. This is where the risk of oral fecal contamination is.
83
What is the risk of using a gravity style water filtering system?
The pathogens are filtered but they remain on the surface of the filter. That means that if you don't handle the tubing with care you can inadvertently cross contaminate.
84
What can't a microfilter remove from water?
Microfilters do not remove viruses
Boiling after filtering is a recommended method.
85
What are the three basic food components?
- **carbohydrates** (sugars and starches)
- **proteins**
- **fats**
86
Why are carbohydrates essential to a mountaineers diet?
They are the easiest foods to convert into energy, carbohydrates should constitute most of the calories.
87
When exerting yourself should you up your protein intake?
The daily requirement for proteins is nearly constant regardless of type or level of activity.
The body cannot store protein so once its needs are met the excess is converted into energy or stored as fat.
88
Which is the most calorie dense of the basic food components?
Fats pack more than twice as many calories per gram as protein and carbohydrates. Fats are digested more slowly than carbohydrates or protein and thus lead you to feel satisfied longer.
89
What is a **SMART** goal?
A fitness goal that is:
- Specific
- Measurable
- Action-Oriented
- Realistic
- Time Stamped
90
What is cardiovascular endurance?
Cardiovascular endurance is the body’s ability to perform a repetitive activity for an extended length of time.
91
What is *aerobic excercise*
Aerobic exercise is any cardiovascular activity that requires a significant amount of oxygen for sustained effort;
92
What is *Anaerobic Excercise*?
Anaerobic exercise is near-maximal cardiovascular training that takes climbers to the upper levels of their aerobic training zone and beyond.
93
What are the **FITT** parameters?
The four FITT parameters:
- frequency (how often you exercise)
- intensity (how hard you exercise)
- time (how long you exercise)
- type (what exercise modes you do)
94
What are the 6 recommended healthy eating habits?
1) **Eat slowly**, and try to stop eating when you reach 80 percent full (that is, still slightly hungry), to teach yourself what your level of “comfortably full” feels like.
2) **Include vegetables with each meal**.
3) **Include protein with each meal**.
4) **Make sure to get healthy fats with each meal**—fats that are rich in omega-3 fatty acids and low in omega-6 fatty acids.
5) **Eliminate or reduce starchy carbohydrates on days you don’t exercise**, replacing them instead with added servings of fruits or vegetables.
6) **Drink plenty of plain potable water**, especially if you consume any soda, alcohol, caffeinated beverages, or juices.
95
How long does it take for satiety signals to reach the brain?
Approximately 20 minutes, so eat slow.
96
What are the 5 essential tools for back country navigation?
Today there are five essential tools for navigating the backcountry:
- map
- altimeter
- compass
- GPS device
- personal locator beacon (PLB) or other device to contact emergency first responders.
97
Define *orientation*, *navigation* and *route finding*
Orientation is determining your exact position on the earth.
Navigation is guiding yourself to a destination.
Routefinding is selecting and following the best path to that destination.
98
Why is a *relief map* helpful?
Terrain is shown in three dimensions with various hues of green, gray, and brown, plus terrain shading, on relief maps. These maps help in visualizing the ups and downs of the landscape and have some value in trip planning.
99
Why are *land management and recreation* maps useful?
Because recreation maps are updated frequently, they are useful for current details on roads, trails, ranger stations, and other human constructions.
They usually show only a two-dimensional (flat) relationship of natural features, without contour lines that indicate the shape of the land.
100
Why are *climbers sketch maps* useful?
Often called climbers’ topos, climbers’ sketch maps are not topographic maps but are generally crudely drawn, two-dimensional sketches that usually make up in specialized route detail what they lack in draftsmanship. Such drawings can be effective supplements to other map and guidebook information.
101
Why are *topographic maps* useful in trip planning?
Essential to off-trail travel, topographic maps (or topos) are the best of all for climbers. They depict topography—the shape of the earth’s surface—by showing contour lines that represent constant elevations above sea level.
102
What are the three principal coordinates systems most commonly used on maps?
Maps use three principal coordinate systems to describe a location on the earth:
- latitude and longitude
- UTM
- MGRS
103
A measurement east or west around the globe is called _______; a measurement north or south is called _______.
A measurement east or west around the globe is called **longitude**; a measurement north or south is called **latitude**.
104
When working with latitude in decimal degrees what does a positive (or negative) number indicate?
the positive number indicating **north**, a negative number would indicate **south**
105
When working with longitudinal decimal degrees what do a positive (and negative) number indicate?
Longitudes east of Greenwich to 180 degrees east are written as positive numbers, while those west of Greenwich to 180 degrees west and throughout the western hemisphere are written as negative numbers.
106
Why is UTM often easier to convert on the fly?
Because the UTM system is metric-based, it allows easy computation of distances between points and is often used with GPS
107
Why is a contour line useful?
The distinctive feature of a topographic map that provides the heart of its useful information is its overlay of contour lines, each line indicating a constant elevation as it follows the shape of the actual landscape.
108
Why are some contour lines darker then others?
To make contour lines easier to use, every fifth contour line is printed darker than the other lines and is labeled periodically with the elevation. These lines are referred to as **Index** Lines
109
Describe what the contour lines of a *flat area* might look like?
Flat areas have no contour lines at all, or contour lines very far apart
110
What would the contour lines of a *gentle slope* look like?
Gentle slopes have widely spaced contour lines
111
How could you tell the difference between a *gentle slope* and a *steep slope* on a topographic map?
Steep slopes have closely spaced contour lines
112
What feature might include contour lines extremely close together or even touching?
Cliffs have contour lines extremely close together or touching
113
Contour lines in the shape of “V” or “U” pointing uphill indicate what feature(s)
Valleys, ravines, gullies, and couloirs have contour lines in a U or V pattern pointing uphill.
114
Contour lines in a “V” or “U” pattern that point downhill indicate?
Ridges or spurs have contour lines in a U or V pattern pointing downhill.
115
How can you locate a peak on a topographical map?
Peaks or summits have concentric patterns of contour lines, with the summit the innermost and highest ring. A peak may also be indicated by an “x,” an elevation number, a benchmark (BM), or a triangle symbol.
116
What would a cirque or a bowl look like on a map?
Cirques or bowls have patterns of contour lines forming a semicircle, rising from a low spot in the center of the partial circle, showing a natural amphitheater at the head of a valley
117
If you are looking at a map and see an hour glass shape with higher contours on each side, what are you seeing?
Saddles, passes, or cols have an hourglass shape, with higher contour lines on each side, indicating a low point on a ridge
118
Describe the terrain in the image
A nearly flat area
119
Describe the terrain in the image
A gentle slope
120
Describe the terrain in the image
A steep slope
121
Describe the terrain in the image
Cliffs
122
Describe the terrain in the image
Valley, ravine, gully or couloir
123
Describe the terrain in the image
Ridge or spur
124
Describe the terrain in the image
Peak or summit
125
Describe the terrain in the image
Cirque or bowl
126
Describe the terrain in the image
Saddle, pass or col
127
Describe magnetic declination
The difference between true north and magnetic north
128
What is a limit of topographic maps?
They do not show all the terrain features that can actually be seen on a route because there is a limit to what can be jammed onto a map without reducing it to an unreadable clutter. If a feature is not at least as high as the contour interval, it may not be shown, so if climbers are navigating with a map that has a 40-foot contour interval, a 30-foot cliff may come as a surprise to them.
129
When looking at a topographic map for the first time what key information should you immediately locate?
- **date** - when was this map last revised?
- **scale** - is this a 7.5 or 15 minute map? Imperial or metric?
- **magnetic declination** - check this against the revision date, could this have drifted?
- **datum referenced** - WGS84 like most modern gps or NAD27 like older (pre 2007) topos?
130
What is a handrail in regards to routefinding?
Any linear feature on a map that parallels the direction of travel is called a handrail: a feature that helps a party to stay on route.
Roads, trails, powerlines, railroad tracks, fences, borders of meadows, valleys, streams, cliff bands, ridges, and lakeshores could all serve as useful handrails.
131
Define baseline as it refers to routefinding
A long, unmistakable line that always lies in the same direction from the party, no matter where the party is during a trip, is called a baseline
The handrail should be within frequent sight of the route, so it can serve as an aid to navigation. Roads, trails, powerlines, railroad tracks, fences, borders of meadows, valleys, streams, cliff bands, ridges, and lakeshores could all serve as useful handrails.
132
Describe the concept of aiming off, aka Intentional Offset, in navigation.
Aiming off is traveling in a direction that is intentionally offset some amount (say, 20 to 30 degrees) to the right or the left of where it really wants to be to compensate for drift and help secure success.
In the example image if you miss your mark to the north you will overshoot and may wander a great way before realizing the error. By aiming off to the south you allow for error and have the road as a backstop to help you navigate.
133
You have an altimeter and a bearing on a known peak, is that enough to locate yourself?
Yes
Draw the bearing on your map and follow the line until you meet the altitude you are reading.
134
You are camped for the night and you set your altimeter using confirmed altitude from GPS and a topographic map. When you wake in the morning the altimeter is reading your location as higher then the night before, what happened?
A barometric altimeter reading showing an increase in elevation when no actual elevation change has taken place (such as at camp overnight) means a falling barometric pressure, which often predicts deteriorating weather.
A decreasing barometric altimeter reading, on the other hand, means increasing barometric pressure and improving weather.
While over simplified this is a worth noting.
135
Define bearing
A bearing (also known as an *azimuth*) is the direction from one place to another, measured in degrees of angle from true north.
136
What is a *true bearing*
The true bearing is a measurement of the angle between the line to true north and the line to the objective.
137
What is a *magnetic bearing*?
Magnetic bearing is the measure of the angle between magnetic north and the destination
138
What is *compass dip*?
The phenomenon near the magnetic poles that causes the compass needle to point down or dip.
At the equator the needle is level, at the North Pole it is pointing downward.
139
Describe the process of taking or measuring a bearing on the map.
**Taking (Measuring) a Bearing on a Map**
1. Place the compass on the map, with the edge of the baseplate joining the two points of interest.
2. Rotate the housing to align the compass meridian lines with the north-south lines on the map.
3. Read the bearing at the compass’s index line.
140
Describe the process of plotting (following) a Bearing on a map.
**Plotting (Following) a Bearing on a Map**
1. Set the desired bearing at the index line by rotating the compass housing.
2. Place the compass on the map, with the edge of the baseplate on the feature from which you wish to plot a bearing.
3. Turn the entire compass to align the meridian lines with the map’s north-south lines. The edge of the baseplate is the bearing line.
141
Describe the process for taking (Measuring) a Bearing in the field
**Taking (Measuring) a Bearing in the Field**
1. Hold the compass level in front of you and point the direction-of-travel line at the desired object.
2. Rotate the housing to align the declination arrow with the magnetic needle.
3. Read the bearing at the index line.
142
Describe the process for plotting (following) a bearing in the field
**Plotting (Following) a Bearing in the Field**
1. Set the desired bearing at the index line by rotating the compass housing.
2. Hold the compass level in front of you and turn your entire body until the magnetic needle is aligned with the declination arrow.
3. Travel in the direction shown by the direction-of-travel line.
143
What is a moat?
The snow next to logs and boulders often covers holes and soft spots called **moats**, which occur when the snow partially melts away from the wood and the rock.
144
What are the *seven principles of leave no trace*?
1. Plan ahead and prepare.
2. Travel and camp on durable surfaces.
3. Dispose of waste properly.
4. Leave what you find.
5. Minimize campfire impacts.
6. Respect wildlife.
7. Be considerate of other visitors.
