Part 1 - Introduction & Framework

Question 1

What is the origin of knowledge in empiricism?

Answer 1

sensory organs

Question 2

What is the origin of knowledge in rationalism?

Answer 2

ratio

Question 3

How to obtain knowledge in empiricism & what is the resulting knowledge?

Answer 3

observation -> empirical knowledge

Question 4

How to obtain knowledge in rationalism & what is the resulting knowledge?

Answer 4

thinking, reasoning -> theoretical knowledge

Question 5

What is the way of reasoning in empiricism?

Answer 5

Induction

Question 6

What is the way of reasoning in rationalism?

Answer 6

Deduction

Question 7

What are the methods and instruments in empiricism?

Answer 7

Questionnaires, measurements, experiments

Question 8

What are the methods and instruments in rationalism?

Answer 8

stating hypotheses and theories, models

Question 9

Who is the historical representative for empiricism?

Answer 9

Francis Bacon (16th - 17th century)

Question 10

Who is the historical representative for rationalism?

Answer 10

René Descartes (17th century)

Question 11

What is deductive thinking?

Answer 11

make a general hypothesis/theory, then apply to specific cases

Question 12

What is inductive thinking?

Answer 12

observe something in many cases and then make a general hypothesis/theory from it

Question 13

What is critical rationalism?

Answer 13

If we hypothesize some relationship, we have to test this in an empirical study; if this holds true, our model is supported; if not, it is not

Question 14

What types of interviews are there?

Answer 14

• standardized
• semi-structured
• free/qualitative ( = exploration)
• computer assisted personal interview

Question 15

What is the Hempel-Oppenheim Scheme?

Answer 15

Explanans (nomological hypotheses + antecedents conditions) -> Explanandum

If the laws hold, then for a specific combination of antecedents conditions, the explanandum will automatically occur

Question 16

What are nomological hypotheses?

Answer 16

Nomological hypotheses (or laws) should only explain an isolated subset of events; they have to have passed a number of rigid tests; and they have to part of a “system”

Question 17

What is internal validity?

Answer 17

Internal validity is the extent to which a piece of evidence supports a claim about cause and effect, within the context of a particular study.
(=about the causal relationship)

Question 18

What is external validity?

Answer 18

“External validity asks the question of generalizability: To what populations, settings, treatment variables, and measurement variables can this effect be generalized?”

(=generalizability)

Question 19

What is reliability?

Answer 19

Reliability is the degree of accuracy or error freeness and consistency of measurements (i.e. measurement is very clustered)

Question 20

What is parallel test reliability?

Answer 20

using two different but comparable ways of measurement to the same sample of respondents in order to test the reliability of the measurement

Question 21

What is test-retest reliability = repeatability?

Answer 21

the same measurement instrument will be applied twice to the same group of respondents = the closeness of the agreement between the results of successive measurements of the same measurand carried out under the same conditions of measurement.

Question 22

What is internal consistency reliability?

Answer 22

split half reliability: a test for a single knowledge area is split into two parts and then both parts given to one group of students at the same time. The scores from both parts of the test are correlated

Question 23

What is the reliability coefficient?

Answer 23

true variance / total variance

where total variance = true + error variance

Question 24

Name 5 factors jeopardizing internal validity!

Answer 24

• History: events between measurements
• Maturation: processes within individuals (i.e. growing older)
• Testing order, several tests
• Instrumentation: changes in calibration, observers, findings
• Statistical Regression: when groups are selected on basis of extreme scores
• Biases in differential selection of comparison groups
• Experimental Mortality: differential loss of respondents
• Selection-maturation interaction, etc., might be mistaken for, the effect of the experimental variable

Question 25

Name 3 factors jeopardizing external validity!

Answer 25

Reactive or interaction effect of testing: pretest might increase or decrease the respondent’s sensitivity or responsiveness to experimental variable ---results unrepresentative for unpretested universe • Interaction effects of selection bias & experimental variable • Reactive effects of experimental arrangements: variables have different effect in experiment setting • Multiple-treatment interference: when multiple treatments are applied to same respondents (effects of prior treatments not erasable)

Question 26

What is validity?

Answer 26

Are you actually measuring what you are trying to measure

Question 27

What is an experiment?

Answer 27

that portion of research in which variables are manipulated and their effects upon other variables observed. Through this manipulation, we can observe causality.

Question 28

What is regression to the mean?

Answer 28

If you measure at the extremes, it will be natural that in a second measurement, they will be closer to the mean (i.e. running - fastest/slowest are also lucky on that day)

Question 29

What is differential selection?

Answer 29

Selection bias (e.g. worst 3 runners do not come back to second measurement)

Question 30

What is selection-maturation/reactive/interaction effect?

Answer 30

Participants realize what is being measured and tested (e.g. sensitized through pre-test) and therefore a stronger effect will be measured