Paper 3: Relationships

Question 1

What is anisogamy?

Answer 1

Anisogamy refers to the differences between male sex cells (sperm) and female sex cells (ova, or eggs).

Question 2

Why might men and women’s reproductive strategies differ?

Answer 2

Women only have a finite number of eggs and requires a large amount of energy to produce offspring while men can reproduce en mass.

Question 3

4 reproductive strategies men use.

Answer 3

Signs of fertility such as youth and beauty. Fighting for a mate. Sneak copulation, cheating with another partner. Mate-guarding, making sure their mate doesn’t reproduce with anyone else.

Question 4

3 reproductive strategies women use.

Answer 4

Signs of resource. Courtship to investigate the man. Sneak copulation to increase the genetic diversity of the child.

Question 5

Strengths of evolutionary explanations of relationships.

Answer 5

Evidence supporting evolutionary explanations of human reproductive behaviour: There are multiple studies supporting the existence of the different mating strategies suggested by anisogamy. For example, in Clark and Hatfield (1989) student participants were asked to approach other students on campus and ask questions like: “Would you go to bed with me?”. The vast majority of men said yes when women asked them, whereas zero women said yes when the men asked them.
Evidence supporting evolutionary explanations of partner preferences: Several studies support the evolutionary explanation of male and female partner preferences. For example, Buss (1989) surveyed 10,000+ adults from all over the world on partner preferences. He found that males valued signs of fertility (i.e. physical attractiveness and youth) more than females and that females valued signs of resources (i.e. financial capacity, ambition) more than males. The male preference for signs of fertility is further supported by Singh (2002), which found that men are attracted to women with waist-to-hip ratios that indicate fertility.

Question 6

Weaknesses of evolutionary explanations for relationships.

Answer 6

Cannot explain all types of relationships: Evolutionary explanations explain male and female relationships on the basis that they are necessary for reproduction and passing on genes. But this explanation is less able to explain other forms of relationships, such as homosexual couples or couples who choose not to have children.
Ignores social/cultural factors: Partner preferences differ between cultures and change within cultures over time. For example, Bovet and Raymond (2015) looked at depictions of ideal women from over the centuries up to modern day depictions such as those seen in magazines like Playboy. They found the ideal waist-to-hip ratio of women changed significantly over the centuries. These changes occurred too quickly to be explained evolutionarily, suggesting social and cultural influences also play a role in shaping partner preferences.

Question 7

What are the 3 factors affecting attraction?

Answer 7

Self-disclosure
Physical Attractiveness
Filter Theory

Question 8

What concept does self-disclosure support and who started the theory?

Answer 8

Part of the social penetration theory devised by Altman and Taylor. It is the reciprocal exchange of information as partners feel closer to one-another.

Question 9

What are the two elements of self-disclosure and how might a relationship deepen?

Answer 9

Depth and breadth of information. Both will increase as the information becomes more intimate and risky. Some topics start ‘off-limit’.

Question 10

Who added to the self-disclosure theory and how?

Answer 10

Reis and Shaver pointed out that the self-disclosure must be reciprocated to deepen the relationship.

Question 11

What research was made in support of the Self-Disclosure theory?

Answer 11

Sprecher and Hendrick found correlations between self-disclosure and levels of satisfaction.
Laurenceau conducted a longitudinal study finding a similar correlation in diaries.

Question 12

What real-life application was found in support of self-disclosure?

Answer 12

Hass and Stafford for 57% of gay men and women said that self-disclosure was important in their relationships.

Question 13

What are the weaknesses of the self-disclosure theory?

Answer 13

Cultural differences, greater self-disclosure in individual cultures compared to collectivist cultures.
There is confusion over whether it is causation or merely correlational.

Question 14

Who found physical attractiveness to be important in attraction?

Answer 14

Shackleford and Larsen found symmetrical faces to be rated as more attractive.
McNulty found attractiveness to be important throughout the relationship long term.

Question 15

How does physical attractiveness interact with other parts of attractiveness?

Answer 15

The Halo Effect makes other parts of their character appear more attractive. Dion et al found attractive people are rated as more sociable and likeable.

Question 16

Who theorised the role of personal attractiveness in physical attractiveness attachment?

Answer 16

Walster et al theorised the Matching Hypothesis is a compromise of attraction and end up with those of similar levels of attraction.

Question 17

Who conducted research supporting the Physical Attractiveness as a factor for attraction?

Answer 17

Palmer and Peterson found support for the Halo effect when judging attractiveness and political expertise.
Feingold found support for the matching hypothesis in a meta-analysis.
Cross-cultural attractiveness is found to be fairly consistent as seen in Wheeler and Kim’s research.

Question 18

What were some contradictory factors in the Physical Attractiveness for attraction?

Answer 18

Walster failed to support her own hypothesis in their research.
Towhey found it wasn’t completely depended on physical appearance as it was impacted by the persons own characteristics.
Taylor et al found online dating, the individual didn’t conform to the matching hypothesis.

Question 19

Who devised the filter theory and what are the 3 factors determining avaliability?

Answer 19

Kerchoff and Davis (1962), we pick partners based off whose avaliable.
Social Demography - Location, social class, education, ethnicity, religion ect
Similarity in attitudes - Especially important before the 18 month mark of the relationship
Complementarity - ability of romantic partners to meet each others needs. Important for long-term couples.

Question 20

What research supported the filter theory?

Answer 20

Winch found evidence for similarities in character and interest are important in the first part of the relationship.
Also has face value.

Question 21

What are the weaknesses of the filter theory?

Answer 21

Levinger found many studies failed to replicate the original findings.
Kerchoff and Davis study was cut-off at the 18 month mark and therefore wasn’t long enough. Also doesn’t take homosexual relationships into account.
Lack of temporal validity, the original theory couldn’t take into account things like online dating.
The direction of cause-and-effect is debatable, Anderson et al saw complementing each other a caused by a longer relationship.

Question 22

What are the 4 main theories of Romantic relationships?

Answer 22

Social Exchange Theory, Equity Theory, Rusbult’s Investment Model and Duck Phase Model.

Question 23

Who first theorised the Social Exchange Theory and what are its components?

Answer 23

Thibault and Kelley believed behaviour in relationships reflected economic exchanges.
Rewards, costs and profits- What we gain from the relationship as a whole
Comparison level- The reward you believe you deserve compared to the rewards you are currently getting.
Comparison Levels for alternatives- are their greater rewards elsewhere, or could it be more rewarding to not be in a relationship at all?

Question 24

What are the stages of relationship development in SET?

Answer 24

Sampling stage- observe the rewards and costs in our current relationships or through observation.
Bargaining stage- Beginning of the relationship where the costs and rewards are weighed up
Commitment stage- Sources of costs and rewards become more predictable and the relationship becomes more stable.
Institutionalisation- Partners are now both settled down.

Question 25

What are the 3 main criticisms of the SET approach?

Answer 25

Inappropriate assumptions of economic value, Clark and Mills (2011). While work relationships may be based off this model, romantic relationships don’t tally up points.
Direction of cause-and-effect, that we don’t start evaluating the rewards of a relationship until we become dissatisfied, Argyle 1987.
Research support the counter-point Miller 1997.
Social Exchange Theory ignores equity in the relationship, may not be a balance of equality but instead a perceived fairness in the relationship.

Question 26

Who came up with the theory of equity and what does it mean?

Answer 26

Walster et al, what matters most is that the rewards and costs are roughly the same. If a partner over benefits, this can lead to guilt and discomfort, if a partner under benefits this can lead to anger and resentment.

Question 27

Consequences of inequity?

Answer 27

The greater the perceived inequity, the greater the dissatisfaction in the relationship.
The change in perceived equity over time can also lead to dissatisfaction.
Inequity can also be an explanation for the gradual acceptance of abuse and maltreatment within a relationship.

Question 28

Who conducted supporting research on the Equity Theory?

Answer 28

Utne 1984 carried out a survey finding euity in a relationship made it more satisfying than a non-equitable relationship.

Question 29

What are some criticisms of equity theory?

Answer 29

Huseman et al suggested certain individuals are less concerned about equity than others.
Aumer-Ryan et al found cultural differences between equity and satisfaction. Collectivist cultures and individualist cultures have different views on equity.
Contradictory evidence by Berg and McQuinn found equity didn’t increase the longer relationships lasted.

Question 30

What are the 3 factors that cause commitment in Rusbults investment model?

Answer 30

Satisfaction level, comparison with alternatives and investment size.

Question 31

What are the two forms of investment?

Answer 31

Intrinsic Investment- resources we put directly into the relationship eg money or self-disclosure.
Extrinsic Investment- resources that weren’t originally in the relationships like children.

Question 32

How did Rusbult see why people stayed in relationships?

Answer 32

Not satisfaction but commitment. Its an investment they don’t want to see waste.

Question 33

What is the cognitive element to the relationship maintenance?

Answer 33

Committed partners think about each other and potential alternatives in specific ways.

Question 34

What are 3 strengths of Rusbults theory?

Answer 34

Supporting evidence from the meta-analysis by Le and Agnew of 52 studies.
Explains abusive relationships due to the investments they have in the relationship.
Has methodological strengths such as its wide use of self-report measures.

Question 35

What are some weaknesses of Rusbult’s model?

Answer 35

Goodfriend and Agnew believed it oversimplified investment and there was more than resources put in. They believed it should take into account futures plans for relationships.
Due to it being based on correlational research, there is no credible direct causation for it.

Question 36

Who studied the breakdown of a relationship and what were the 4 phases?

Answer 36

Duck’s Phase Breakdown Model
Intra-psychic phase, A cognitive process that broods dissatisfaction
Dyadic phase, Interpersonal processes with confrontations over their relationship, characterised by anxiety and hostility.
Social Phase, the break up is made public and this is the point of no-return
Grave-dressing phase, the relationship is dead and the partners try to gain ‘social credit’.

Question 37

What is a strength of Duck’s Phase Model?

Answer 37

Has useful real-life application. Duck recommended it could be used for the repair of a relationship at the dyadic phase.

Question 38

What are 3 criticisms of Duck’s phase model?

Answer 38

Incomplete? Rollie and Duck saw the potential to add a 5th phase, the Resurrection phase in which partners use their knowledge in new relationships.
Description rather than explanation, compared to other theories such as the fatal attraction hypothesis.
Cultural bias, all research was conducted in a Western culture. Some relationships are also arranged or obligatory.

Question 39

What are the two separate theories behind self-disclosure in virtual relationships?

Answer 39

Reduced Cue Theory, Sproull and Kiesler
Virtual relationship are less effective than face to face ones due to a lack of cues. Lead to de-individuation as it reduces peoples identity with encourages disinhibition.

The Hyperpersonal Model, Walther argues online relationships can get more personal and involves greater self-disclosure. Cooper and Sortolari also commented on the boom and bust phenomenon due to the intense and short term characteristics of the relationship.
Bargh also argued anonymity, being less accountable for your behaviour, can cause greater disclosure.

Question 40

How may virtual relationships be formed more easily than face-to-face?

Answer 40

Absence of gates, physical unattractiveness or a stammer can be overcome through the online setting.
Can get a relationship off the ground quicker than a face to face relationship.

Question 41

What is an issue with the reduced cues theory?

Answer 41

Lack of research for the theory. Walther and Tidwell point out that there isn’t a lack of cues but instead the cues are different.

Question 42

Who supported the hyperpersonal model?

Answer 42

Whitty and Joinson found evidence showing people online were ‘hyperhonest’.

Question 43

What are the two criticisms of the Virtual Relationship model?

Answer 43

Self-disclosure isn’t a blanket phenomenon and depends on each type of relationship it refers to.
Walther suggested most relationships are multi-modal, happening both offline and online, therefore aren’t restricted to each.

Question 44

What are the 3 levels of a parasocial relationships?

Answer 44

Entertainment Social, Least intense, celebrities are only sources of entertainment.
Intense-Personal, Intermediate level which reflects greater personal involvement with a celebrity.
Borderline pathological, Uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviour.

Question 45

Who came up with the absorption-addiction model and how does it work?

Answer 45

McCutcheon believes parasocial relationships come from the deficiencies people have in their own lives. Absorption- Seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates the individual.
Addiction- Individual needs to sustain their commitment by feeling a stronger and closer relationship with the celebrity.

Question 46

How does attachment factor into parasocial relationships?

Answer 46

Bowlby’s attachment theory suggested early difficulties lead to emotional issues later in life.
Ainsworth suggested insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant were more prone to developing parasocial relationships.

Question 47

How was the absorption-addiction model supported?

Answer 47

Maltby et al investigated the link between celebrity worship and body image. Found females with poor personal body image made strong parasocial relationships.