Paper 3

Question 1

What are the key differences between quantitative and qualitative data?

Answer 1

In quantitative research, the data are in the form of “numbers” that are easy to summarize and submit to statistical analysis. Quantitative data are meant for generalization beyond the sample from which the data were drawn.

Qualitative data are gathered through direct interaction with participants—for example, through one-to-one or group interviews, or by observations in the field. The data consist of non-numeric data - for example, from transcripts or field notes. Data are open for interpretation. The term used is “rich data”, which means that they are rich in their description of the behaviors being observed. Because the data are rich, they are not easy to analyze, and there is no single way to approach analysis

Question 2

What would be the advantage of gathering qualitative data for a study instead of quantitative data? Give an example to illustrate your argument.

Answer 2

Qualitative data is descriptive and describes “how”. It is gathered by doing in-depth descriptions. Usually, people are studied in their own environment. For example, how does bullying affect school performance in children? How do IB students cope with stress?

Question 3

What would be the advantage of gathering quantitative data for a study instead of qualitative data? Give an example to illustrate your argument.

Answer 3

The advantage is that statistical analysis can be applied and it can be determined to what extent the results may be due to chance. Quantitative research studies can also be more reliable since they can be replicated and the results can be easily compared. For example, to what extent does music assist in one’s ability to learn a list of words? When this study is carried out, the average number of words in both conditions - that is, with and without music - can be compared.

Question 4

To what extent can one generalize from qualitative studies? (Be sure to use the terminology that is discussed in this workbook with regard to Guba & Lincoln’s vocabulary for discussing qualitative research studies).

Answer 4

Qualitative studies can be generalized, but only to a limited extent. The word often used by researchers is “transferability.” To determine the level of transferability, the situation that is being studied must be described in detail so that the findings can potentially be applied to a similar situation. For example, if you are studying stress at our school you would not be able to generalize your findings to all schools, but only schools that are similar to ours. You would have to consider the size of the school, the level of economic and cultural diversity, that we run the IB program, and the size of classrooms. The list could go on…

Question 5

In general, what are the ethical considerations that must be made when carrying out qualitative research? Is this in any way different from the ethical considerations that must be followed when carrying out experimental research?

Answer 5

Unlike much quantitative experimental research, no IV is manipulated. However, sometimes the situation is manipulated to see how people will respond. So, in that sense, the same ethical standards apply to quantitative research. Very often qualitative research is long-term and personal. The participants may develop a relationship with the researcher and disclose personal information. It is important that the anonymity of the participants is protected and that their trust is not violated. It is also important that the researcher not become too close to the participants and thus lose a sense of objectivity.

Question 6

What are two participant effects? How may they affect the findings of a qualitative research study?

Answer 6

The most basic participant effect is called “reactivity.” This is when the participants act differently than they usually would because they are aware that they are being studied. Another participant effect is the social desirability effect - this is where information is not disclosed if the participant fears being judged or seen in a negative light. Another effect is the conformity effect. This could happen in a focus group where participants behave in line with the other members of the group. Finally, another participant effect is the expectancy effect, where the participant wants to help the researcher and thus gives information that is believed to be what the researcher is looking for. All of these effects may affect the study by distorting the data and providing data that is not credible - in other words, is not reflective of the actual opinions or behaviors of the participant.

Question 7

What is researcher bias? How can a researcher try to minimize its effect on research?

Answer 7

When the researcher’s own beliefs influence the research process. One way that this could be reduced is to train others to carry out the research who are not aware of the actual goals or expectations of the study. Another way is to have more than one researcher collect and/or analyze the data and compare the findings to see if the same interpretations are made. This can also be done by asking the participants whether they agree with the findings. Finally, the researcher can reflect on how their own biases may have influenced the study as part of the discussion of their findings.

Question 8

What does it mean if we say that a study lacks “credibility?” Why is this important in qualitative research?

Answer 8

Credibility is linked to the concept of validity. Are the findings and/or interpretations in line with the experience of the participants? This is also called “trustworthiness.” So, if your interpretation of an interview with me says that I am very “anti-technology”, this may not be true but may be a misunderstanding of my tone, body language, or word choice. It could also be a facet of an interview, ignoring other statements that may have shown a more balanced approach to technology. Credibility is important so that we can say that our findings do reflect the experiences of our participants and helps us to ensure an appropriate level of objectivity.

Credibility can be established through triangulation or by asking the participant to read the interpretations/results and say whether they agree with the researcher.

Question 9

Define triangulation, giving two examples of how it works.

Answer 9

Triangulation is a “cross-checking” of data with an attempt of reaching the same conclusion by other means. One type is “method triangulation”, where different methods are used to study the same behavior. So, to determine how stress affects an individual, I may give them a questionnaire, carry out an observation and have a focus group. A second form of triangulation is researcher triangulation, where more than one researcher is carrying out an observation and the data can then be compared. Finally, there is theory triangulation, where a behavior is studied by researchers of different theoretical backgrounds - for example, a biological, cognitive, and sociocultural psychologist.

Question 10

Why is triangulation important in qualitative research? How does it affect the credibility of the study?

Answer 10

It is important to establish credibility. By using method triangulation and getting the same results, I can conclude that it was not simply my choice of method that led to the results. If more than one researcher comes to the same conclusion, then it is not just my own biases that led to the results.

Question 11

Explain what is meant by reflexivity – and why it is an important part of qualitative research?

Answer 11

There are two types of reflexivity. The first one is “personal.” This is where the researcher reflects on how his or her own biases or personal experiences may have influenced their findings. This is important because it will help to reduce researcher bias. The second type of reflexivity is called “epistemological.” This is when the researcher reflects on how they carried out the study and whether their choice of research method or procedure could have influenced the findings. This is important to establish the credibility of the findings.

Question 12

A priori coding:

Answer 12

A process of coding qualitative data whereby the researcher develops the codes ahead of time based on a theoretical framework, the interview question, or pre-existing knowledge.

Question 13

Case study:

Answer 13

The study of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time. Case studies are technically not a research method - but a combination of research methods.

Question 14

Content analysis:

Answer 14

A data analysis technique used to interpret textual material. This is done by looking for data or themes in a text - for example, a transcript of an interview. The researcher may decide what to look for before reading the interview. This is a priori coding. This then converts the qualitative data into quantitative data. This is a deductive approach. The researcher may also wait until she has all the interviews and then note what trends “emerge” from the text. This is an inductive approach.

Question 15

Covert observation:

Answer 15

An observation in which the identity of the researcher, the nature of the research project, and the fact that participants are being observed are hidden from those who are being studied. The opposite of an overt observation.

Question 16

Credibility:

Answer 16

This word is often seen as a synonym for validity in qualitative research.

Question 17

Cross-sectional design:

Answer 17

Comparing two or more groups on a particular variable at a specific time. The opposite is a longitudinal design where the researcher measures a change in an individual over time.

Question 18

Data triangulation:

Answer 18

Collecting data from more than one source. Also called “source triangulation.” For example, collecting data from four different hospitals.

Question 19

Emergent thematic coding:

Answer 19

A qualitative data analysis approach in which a text is read several times to identify themes that emerge from the data. This is a common method for interpreting interviews.

Question 20

Epistemological reflexivity:

Answer 20

When a researcher reflects on their choice of method or materials may have influenced the findings of the study - for example, how did using a participant observation affect the potential behavior of the people being studied?

Question 21

Event sampling:

Answer 21

A data collection strategy for observational studies. This is when the researcher makes note only when a specific behavior is observed. For example, only when aggression is observed on the playground.

Question 22

Focus group:

Answer 22

A group interview, using 5 - 12 participants who share a common trait or interest.

Question 23

Inter-rater reliability:

Answer 23

The degree of agreement among researchers recording behavior during an observation.

Question 24

Longitudinal study:

Answer 24

Research over a period of time using observations, interviews, or psychometric testing. (Similar to a repeated measures design in an experiment).

Question 25

Meta-analysis:

Answer 25

Pooling data from multiple studies of the same research question to arrive at one combined answer.

Question 26

Method triangulation:

Answer 26

The use of more than one method to carry out a study. Case studies often use method triangulation. This is important because it increases the credibility of the study - we know it was not the choice of the research method alone that led to the findings.

Question 27

Narrative interview:

Answer 27

An interview in which the researcher asks an open-ended question and invites the interviewee to respond, The interviewee is not asked any other questions and the interviewer only asks for clarifications. The goal is that questions asked by the interviewer will not influence the interviewee.

Question 28

Naturalistic observation:

Answer 28

An observation carried out in a participant's natural environment. The opposite of a lab or controlled observation.

Question 29

Outcomes-based research:

Answer 29

An attempt by healthcare agencies to see how certain healthcare practices, treatments, and other interventions affect a person's health. This type of research focuses on the results.

Question 30

Participant attrition:

Answer 30

The rate at which participants drop out of a study over time. This often occurs when research has many steps or takes place over a long period of time.

Question 31

Participant observation:

Answer 31

An observational study where the researcher joins the group that is being observed. The opposite of a non-participant observation.

Question 32

Personal reflexivity:

Answer 32

When researchers reflect on how their own biases may have affected their research process and the findings of their research.

Question 33

Point sampling:

Answer 33

A data collection method used when carrying out an observation of a group where the researcher records the behavior of an individual and then moves on to the next participant until all have been observed.

Question 34

Process-based research:

Answer 34

An attempt by healthcare agencies to see how certain healthcare practices, treatments, and other interventions affect a person's health over time. This type of research is focused on the changes over time, rather than the final results.

Question 35

Prospective research:

Answer 35

A study that attempts to find a correlation between two variables by collecting data early in the life of participants and then continuing to test them over a period of time to measure change and development.

Question 36

Quota sampling:

Answer 36

Similar to a stratified sample, but there is no random selection of participants from the population. For example, you want a sample that reflects your country's population. If your country is 40% of one culture and 60% of another, then the sample would have that same proportion - but they are not chosen randomly. It might be the first 40 people that sign up from culture x and then the first 60 from culture y.

Question 37

Retrospective research:

Answer 37

Collecting data to gain information about individuals' past about an outcome that has already happened when the study is being conducted. For example, in the study of someone with depression, looking to see what protective and risk factors existed in their life, such as adverse childhood experiences.

Question 38

Snowball sampling:

Answer 38

A sampling technique where research participants recruit other participants for a study.

Question 39

Structured interview:

Answer 39

A type of interview in which the interviewer asks a particular set of predetermined questions. The questions are created in advance and all participants are asked the same questions in the same order.

Question 40

Time sampling:

Answer 40

A data collection method used when carrying out an observation of a group where notes are taken at specific times - for example, every five minutes or every hour.

Question 41

Theory triangulation:

Answer 41

The use of more than one theoretical approach to investigate a question - for example, looking at a patient like HM from a biological, cognitive, and sociocultural perspective.

Question 42

Transferability:

Answer 42

The degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings.

Question 43

Unstructured interview:

Answer 43

An interview in which there is no specific set of predetermined questions. The interviews are more like an everyday conversation and tend to be more informal and open-ended.

Question 44

Alternative hypothesis:

Answer 44

Also known as the research hypothesis. A hypothesis that states that there will be a statistically significant relationship between two or more variables.

Question 45

Baseline:

Answer 45

The level of responding before any treatment is introduced and therefore acts as a control condition. For example, measuring normal brain activity before being asked to recall a stressful event.

Question 46

Confederate:

Answer 46

A helper of a researcher who pretends to be a real participant.

Question 47

Control condition:

Answer 47

A condition that does not receive the treatment or intervention that the other conditions do. It is used to see what would happen if the independent variable were not manipulated.

Question 48

Correlational research:

Answer 48

The researcher measures two or more variables without manipulating an independent variable and with little or no attempt to control extraneous variables.

Question 49

Counterbalancing:

Answer 49

A technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measures design. When a study is counterbalanced, the sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order.

Question 50

Cross-sectional design:

Answer 50

Comparing two or more groups on a particular variable at a specific time. The opposite is a longitudinal design where the researcher measures a change in an individual over time.

Question 51

Dependent variable:

Answer 51

The variable that is measured and is hypothesized to be the effect of the independent variable.

Question 52

Double-blind testing:

Answer 52

An experimental procedure in which neither the researcher doing the study nor the participants know the specific type of treatment each participant receives until after the experiment is over; a double-blind procedure is used to guard against both experimenter bias and placebo effects.

Question 53

Factorial Design:

Answer 53

A design including multiple independent variables.

Question 54

Field experiment:

Answer 54

A study that is conducted outside the laboratory in a “real-world” setting.

Question 55

Hypothesis:

Answer 55

A testable statement of what the researcher predicts will be the outcome of the study which is usually based on established theory.

Question 56

Independent samples design:

Answer 56

Also called an independent measures design and between-groups design. More than one experimental group is used and participants are only in one group. Each participant is only in one condition of the independent variable.

Question 57

Independent variable:

Answer 57

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

Question 58

Meta-analysis:

Answer 58

Pooling data from multiple studies of the same research question to arrive at one combined answer.

Question 59

Natural experiment:

Answer 59

The study of a naturally occurring situation in the real world. The researcher does not manipulate an independent variable or assign participants randomly to conditions.

Question 60

Non-equivalent groups design:

Answer 60

A between-subjects design in which participants have not been randomly assigned to conditions. A typical example would be to look at gender differences with regard to a certain behavior.

Question 61

Null hypothesis:

Answer 61

A hypothesis that says there will be no statistical significance between two variables. It is the hypothesis that a researcher will try to disprove.

Question 62

One-tailed hypothesis:

Answer 62

A scientific prediction stating that an effect will occur and whether that effect will specifically increase or specifically decrease, depending on changes to the independent variable.

Question 63

Operationalization:

Answer 63

The process by which the researcher decides how a variable will be measured. For example, "marital satisfaction" cannot be measured directly, so the researcher would have to decide what traits will be measured in order to measure the construct.

Question 64

Pretest-posttest design:

Answer 64

The dependent variable is measured before the independent variable has been manipulated and then again after it has been manipulated.

Question 65

p-value:

Answer 65

The probability that, if the null hypothesis were true, the result found in the sample would occur.

Question 66

Quasi-experiment:

Answer 66

The researcher manipulates an independent variable but does not randomly assign participants to conditions.

Question 67

Random allocation:

Answer 67

A method of controlling extraneous variables across conditions by using a random process to decide which participants will be in which conditions. This includes random number generators and pulling names out of a hat.

Question 68

Repeated measures design:

Answer 68

Also called a “within groups” design. The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group of participants.

Question 69

Single-blind testing:

Answer 69

An experiment in which the researchers know which participants are receiving a treatment and which are not; however, the participants do not know which condition they are in.

Question 71

Self-selected sampling:

Answer 71

Also called volunteer sampling. Participants choose to become part of a study because they volunteer by responding to an advert or a request to take part in a study.

Question 71

Random sampling:

Answer 71

Selecting a sample of participants from a larger potential group of eligible individuals, such that each person has the same fixed probability of being included in the sample.

Question 71

Two-tailed hypothesis:

Answer 71

A hypothesis that one experimental group will differ from another without specification of the expected direction of the difference - that is, without predicting an increase or decrease in behavior.

Question 72

Opportunity sampling:

Answer 72

Also called convenience sampling. A sampling technique where participants are selected based on naturally occurring groups or participants who are easily available.

Question 72

True experiment:

Answer 72

A study in which participants are randomly assigned to either a treatment group or a control group; an independent variable is manipulated by the researcher.

Question 72

Bidirectional ambiguity:

Answer 72

A limitation of many correlational studies. It is not possible to know if x causes y, y causes x, if they interact to cause behavior, or whether it is just coincidental and no relationship truly exists.

Question 72

Construct validity:

Answer 72

The degree to which a study consistently measures a variable. For example, if a researcher develops a new questionnaire to evaluate respondents’ levels of aggression, the construct validity of the instrument would be the extent to which it actually assesses aggression as opposed to assertiveness, social dominance, or irritability.

Question 72

Stratified Random Sampling:

Answer 72

A method of probability sampling in which the population is divided into different subgroups or “strata” and then a random sample is taken from each “stratum.”

Question 73

Demand characteristics:

Answer 73

Cues that may influence or bias participants’ behavior, for example, by suggesting the outcome or response that the experimenter expects or desires.

Question 74

Ecological fallacy:

Answer 74

A mistaken conclusion drawn about individuals based on findings from groups to which they belong. For example, if a researcher uses Japanese participants in the sample and assumes that since they are Japanese, they must be collectivistic. The ecological fallacy is controlled for by giving a test to measure the assumed variable.

Question 75

Ecological validity:

Answer 75

The degree to which results obtained from research or experimentation are representative of conditions in the wider world. Ecological validity is influenced by the level of control in the environment (hence, ecological).

Question 76

Expectancy effect:

Answer 76

When a researcher’s expectations about the findings of the research are inadvertently communicated to participants and influence their responses. This distortion of results arises from participants’ reactions to subtle cues unintentionally given by the researcher - for example, through body movements, gestures, or facial expressions.

Question 77

External validity:

Answer 77

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized beyond the sample that was tested.

Question 78

Extraneous variable:

Answer 78

Also known as a confounding variable. A variable that is not under investigation in an experiment but may potentially affect the dependent variable if it is not properly controlled.

Question 79

Fatigue effect:

Answer 79

A type of order effect where a participant decreases in performance in later conditions because they are tired or bored with the activity.

Question 80

Interference effect:

Answer 80

A type of order effect where the first condition may influence the outcome of the second condition. For example, when giving two sets of words to remember, when a participant remembers a word from the first condition when trying to recall words in the second condition.

Question 81

Internal validity:

Answer 81

When an experiment was conducted using appropriate controls so that it supports the conclusion that the independent variable caused observed differences in the dependent variable.

Question 82

Mundane Realism:

Answer 82

The participants and the situation studied are representative of everyday life. If a study is highly artificial, it is said to lack mundane realism.

Question 83

Order effects:

Answer 83

Differences in research participants' responses that result from the order in which they participate in the experimental conditions. Examples include fatigue effect, interference effects, or practice effect.

Question 84

Participant attrition:

Answer 84

The rate at which participants drop out of a study over time. This often occurs when research has many steps or takes place over a long period of time.

Question 85

Placebo effect:

Answer 85

A beneficial effect produced by a placebo drug or treatment, which cannot be attributed to the properties of the placebo itself, and must, therefore, be due to the patient's belief in that treatment.

Question 86

Practice effect:

Answer 86

A type of order effect where a participant improves in performance in later conditions because practice has lead to the development of skill or learning.

Question 87

Random error:

Answer 87

Error that is due to chance alone. Random errors occur when unexpected or uncontrolled factors affect the variable being measured or the process of measurement.

Question 88

Reactivity:

Answer 88

When participants change their behavior due to their awareness of being observed.

Question 89

Reliability:

Answer 89

The consistency of a measure - that is, the degree to which a study is free of random error, obtaining the same results across time with the same population.

Question 90

Sampling bias:

Answer 90

When a sample is selected in such a way that it is not representative of the population from which it was drawn. When a sample is biased, population validity is decreased.

Question 91

Type I Error:

Answer 91

When the null hypothesis is rejected although it is true; when the research concludes there is a relationship in the population when in fact there is not.

Question 92

Type II Error:

Answer 92

When the null hypothesis is retained although it is false; when the research concludes there is no relationship in the population when in fact there is one.