Paper 1 Studies Flashcards
Maguire et al. (2000)
Aim: Investigate whether structural changes could be detected in the brains of people with extensive experience in spatial navigation—specifically, London taxi drivers.
Method:
- Design: Quasi-experimental, correlational study using MRI scans.
- Participants: 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers (average experience of 14.3 years) and 50 right-handed male non-taxi driver controls.
- Procedures:
MRI scans were conducted on all participants.
Results:
- Taxi drivers had increased grey matter volume in the posterior hippocampus.
- Non-taxi drivers had increased grey matter in the anterior hippocampus.
- A positive correlation between years of taxi driving experience and hippocampal volume.
Conclusion: 1. The posterior hippocampus is involved in spatial navigation. 2. Demonstrates neuroplasticity: the brain can change structurally in response to environmental demands. 3. Supports localization of function within the hippocampus.
Draganski et al. (2004)
Aim: Determine whether structural changes occur in the brain in response to learning a new motor skill—juggling.
Method:
- Design: Experimental study with repeated measures.
- Participants: 24 volunteers (21 females, 3 males), randomly assigned to juggling or non-juggling group.
- Procedures: 1. MRI scans before learning, after mastering juggling, and three months after stopping practice. 2. Juggling group learned a three-ball cascade juggling routine.
Results:
- Increased grey matter in the mid-temporal area (visual and motor areas) after learning to juggle.
- Decrease in grey matter after cessation of practice (neural pruning).
Conclusion: 1. Learning new skills induces neuroplasticity through the formation of new neural connections. 2. Lack of practice leads to neural pruning—reduction of unused neural networks.
Antonova et al. (2011)
Aim: Investigate the role of acetylcholine in the encoding of spatial memory in humans.
Method:
- Design: Double-blind, repeated measures experimental design.
- Participants: 20 healthy male adults (mean age ~28).
- Procedures: 1. Participants randomly received either scopolamine (acetylcholine antagonist) or a placebo. 2. Engaged in a virtual reality “Arena task” to test spatial memory while undergoing fMRI scans.
Results:
- Participants injected with scopolamine showed reduced activation in the hippocampus.
- Performed worse on the spatial memory task compared to placebo group.
Conclusion: 1. Acetylcholine plays a significant role in the encoding of spatial memories in the hippocampus. 2. Blocking acetylcholine receptors impairs spatial memory formation.
POTENTIAL HARM
Martinez and Kesner (1991)
Aim: Investigate the role of acetylcholine in memory formation in rats.
Method:
- Design: Laboratory experiment with independent measures.
- Participants: Rats trained to navigate a maze.
- Procedures: 1. Divided rats into three groups: Scopolamine group (acetylcholine antagonist), Physostigmine group (acetylcholine agonist) or Control group (saline solution). 2. Measured time and errors in maze navigation.
Results:
- Scopolamine group took longer and made more errors.
- Physostigmine group learned faster and made fewer errors than control.
Control group performed at an average rate.
Conclusion: 1. Acetylcholine enhances memory formation. 2. Agonists (physostigmine) improve memory; antagonists (scopolamine) impair it.
Newcomer et al. (1999)
Aim: Examine how levels of the stress hormone cortisol affect verbal declarative memory.
Method:
- Design: Double-blind, randomized, controlled experiment.
- Participants: 51 healthy adults aged 18-30.
- Procedures: 1.Assigned to one of three groups: High cortisol dose (160 mg/day), Low cortisol dose (40 mg/day) or Placebo group. 2. Tested on verbal declarative memory over four days.
Results:
- High-dose group showed significant memory impairment.
- Low-dose group had slight but not significant impairment.
Placebo group showed no memory decline.
Conclusion: 1. Elevated cortisol levels impair verbal declarative memory. 2. Suggests stress hormones negatively impact cognitive functions.
POTENTIAL HARM
Wedekind et al. (1995)
Aim: Determine whether women prefer the body odors of men with dissimilar Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) genes, suggesting a role for pheromones in mate selection.
Method:
- Design: Double-blind experiment.
- Participants: 49 female and 44 male university students.
- Procedures: Men wore a plain T-shirt for two nights.
Women, during their second week after menstruation, rated the odors of six T-shirts.
Results:
- Women preferred the scent of men with dissimilar MHC genes.
- Preference reversed if women were on oral contraceptives.
Conclusion: 1. Suggests that pheromones influence human mate selection. 2. Preference for genetic diversity may enhance offspring’s immune system.
Caspi et al. (2003)
Aim: Investigate the role of the 5-HTT gene in depression following stressful life events.
Method:
- Design: Longitudinal study over 25 years.
- Participants: 847 New Zealanders.
- Procedures: 1. Genotyped participants for the 5-HTT gene (short and long alleles). 2. Assessed for depression and stressful life events.
Results:
- Individuals with one or two short alleles of the 5-HTT gene exhibited more depressive symptoms in response to stress.
- Long allele carriers less affected by stressful events.
Conclusion: 1. The 5-HTT gene moderates the influence of stressful life events on depression. 2. Demonstrates a gene-environment interaction.
Bailey and Pillard (1990)
Aim: To investigate the role of genetics in sexual orientation by comparing concordance rates of homosexuality among monozygotic (MZ) twins, dizygotic (DZ) twins, and adoptive brothers.
Method:
- Design: Correlational study.
- Participants: Male twins and adoptive brothers recruited through voluntary sampling.
- Procedure: 1. Sexual orientation was assessed through self-reports. 2. Childhood Gender Nonconformity (CGN) was also examined. 3. Participants were asked if they had relatives who were homosexual.
Results:
1. 52% of MZ twins were both self-identified as homosexual.
2. 22% of DZ twins were both homosexual.
3. 11% of adoptive brothers were both homosexual.
Conclusion:
1. The more closely genetically related a pair is, the higher the concordance rate for homosexuality, suggesting a genetic component to sexual orientation.
2. Childhood Gender Nonconformity (CGN) did not correlate with later sexual orientation, indicating it is not a predictor of homosexuality.
Milner (1966)
Aim: Investigate the role of the hippocampus in memory formation through the case of HM.
Method:
- Design: Longitudinal case study.
- Participant: HM, who had his hippocampus removed during epilepsy surgery.
- Procedure: Observations, memory tests, IQ testing, and MRI scans.
Results:
1. HM could form short-term memories but was unable to transfer them into long-term memory.
2. He retained procedural memory but not episodic memory.
Conclusion: 1. STM and LTM are distinct systems. 2. The hippocampus is critical for transferring STM into LTM. 3. Supports the Multi-Store Model of memory.
Bartlett (1932)
Aim: Examine how cultural schemas influence memory recall.
Method:
- Design: Repeated serial reproduction.
- Participants: British university students.
- Procedures: Read “War of the Ghosts” myth and recall it several times over weeks.
Results:
- Stories became shorter, more coherent, and adapted to British schemas (e.g., “canoe” → “boat”).
Conclusion: 1. Memory is reconstructive; 2. Prior knowledge (schemas) shapes encoding and retrieval.
Strack & Mussweiler (1997)
Aim: Test the anchoring effect in numerical estimates.
Method:
- Design: Independent‑groups experiment.
- Participants: University students.
- Procedures: Asked if Gandhi died before/after an anchor (e.g., 9 or 140), then estimate his age at death.
Results:
- High‑anchor group gave significantly higher age estimates than low‑anchor group.
Conclusion: 1. Initial anchors bias subsequent judgments; 2. Demonstrates a fast, heuristic (System1) shortcut in decision‑making.
Loftus & Pickrell (1995)
Aim: Explore whether false autobiographical memories can be implanted.
Method:
- Design: Experimental study.
- Participants: 24 adults.
- Procedures: Presented three true childhood events and one false (lost in mall); interviewed later for recall.
Results:
- ~25% “remembered” the implanted false event as real.
Conclusion: 1. Memory can be distorted by suggestion; 2. Raises ethical concerns about deception and participant distress.
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Aim: Investigate how leading questions affect eyewitness estimates of speed.
Method:
- Design: Laboratory experiment.
- Participants: 45 students.
- Procedures: Watched car‑crash clips; asked “About how fast were the cars going when they [verb] each other?” (verbs varied).
Results:
- “Smashed” → higher speed estimates than “contacted”; “smashed” group more likely to (falsely) recall broken glass.
Conclusion: 1. Language influences memory reconstruction; 2. Eyewitness testimony can be unreliable.
Landry & Bartling (2011)
Aim: Test the phonological loop component of the Working Memory Model.
Method:
- Design: Laboratory experiment.
- Participants: 34 psychology students.
- Procedures: Memorize lists of letters while either articulatory suppressing (“1‑2‑1‑2”) or remaining silent.
Results:
- Suppression group recalled significantly fewer letters.
Conclusion: 1. Supports separate verbal short‑term store (phonological loop); 2. Rehearsal is necessary for verbal STM.
McGaugh & Cahill (1995)
Aim: Examine the role of adrenaline and the amygdala in emotional memory.
Method:
- Design: Laboratory experiment.
- Participants: Undergraduates.
- Procedures: Watched either an emotional or neutral story; half received a beta‑blocker (propranolol) beforehand.
Results:
- Emotional‑story group remembered more details unless given propranolol.
Conclusion: 1. Adrenaline enhances memory via the amygdala; 2. Demonstrates emotion–memory interaction.
Tajfel (1971)
Aim: Investigate minimal group discrimination and in‑group favoritism.
Method:
- Design: Laboratory experiment.
- Participants: British schoolboys.
- Procedures: Randomly assigned to Klee vs Kandinsky groups; allocated rewards anonymously.
Results:
- Participants favored their in‑group, even at personal cost.
Conclusion: 1. Group membership alone can trigger bias; 2. Supports Social Identity Theory.
Bandura et al. (1961)
Aim: Determine if children learn aggression through observation.
Method:
- Design: Controlled experiment.
- Participants: Children aged3–5.
- Procedures: Observed adult model acting aggressively or non‑aggressively toward a Bobo doll; then allowed to play.
Results:
- Children imitated aggressive behaviors, especially same‑sex model.
Conclusion: 1. Supports Social Cognitive Theory’s modeling principle; 2. Behavior can be learned vicariously.
Hamilton & Gifford (1976)
Aim: Investigate illusory correlation in stereotype formation.
Method:
- Design: Experimental study.
- Participants: Adults.
- Procedures: Read behavior statements about a majority (A) and minority (B) group; minority had proportionally more negative acts.
Results:
- Overestimated negative behaviors in the minority group.
Conclusion: 1. Stereotypes form by pairing distinctive events; 2. Cognitive bias underlies social misconceptions.
Steele & Aronson (1995)
Aim: Examine stereotype threat’s impact on test performance.
Method:
- Design: Experimental study.
- Participants: African American and White undergraduates.
- Procedures: Took a verbal test labeled either “diagnostic of ability” (threat) or not.
Results:
- Black students underperformed when led to believe the test measured ability.
Conclusion: 1. Stereotype activation impairs performance; 2. Social context can influence cognition.
Berry (1967)
Aim: Compare conformity rates in individualistic vs collectivistic cultures.
Method:
- Design: Quasi‑experiment.
- Participants: Temne (collective), Inuit (individualist), Scottish control.
- Procedures: Line‑matching task under group pressure.
Results:
- Temne conformed most; Inuit least; Scots intermediate.
Conclusion: 1. Cultural values shape conformity behavior; 2. Supports cultural dimensions theory.
Fagot (1978)
Aim: Investigate parental influence on gender-role behavior development.
Method:
- Design: Naturalistic observation.
- Participants: Parents and young children.
- Procedures: Observed parental responses to child’s gender‑typical vs atypical play.
Results:
- Parents reinforced gender‑typical behavior more positively.
Conclusion: 1. Enculturation occurs via parental feedback; 2. Socialization shapes early behavior.
Lueck & Wilson (2010)
Aim: Explore factors affecting acculturative stress in immigrants.
Method:
- Design: Semi‑structured interviews.
- Participants: Asian Americans and immigrants (n>2000).
- Procedures: Assessed language proficiency, family support, discrimination experiences.
Results:
- Better English skills and bicultural identity correlated with lower stress.
Conclusion: 1. Assimilation factors reduce acculturative stress; 2. Cultural adaptation impacts well‑being.
Abrams (1990)
Aim: Examine how in‑group vs out‑group context affects conformity.
Method:
- Design: Laboratory experiment (Asch‑type).
- Participants: University students assigned to “psych” or “history” groups.
- Procedures: Judged line lengths in public or private response.
Results:
- Higher conformity when responding publicly with in‑group members.
Conclusion: 1. Social identity influences conformity; 2. Public context amplifies group norms.
