Paper 3 Flashcards
Synoptic
Application of previously learnt content to a new/different area
Interactionist approach
Nature and nurture are intertwined and a two-way process. Supported by diathesis stress model (inherited vulnerability to behaviours but they can only be activated by environmental stressors), cross cultural studies show the degree that characteristics are shared or up to culture, epigenetics
Features of the nature/nativist argument
Descartes argues all behaviours are innate and not learned, favours empirical evidence and biology over psychology
Features of the nurture/empiricist argument
Argues that babies start off as a blank slate and all behaviours are learned/conditioned by interaction with the environment
Dias and Ressler
2014, gives male lab mice electric shocks when they are exposed to certain smell. Mice became scared of smell. The rat’s children and grandchildren also feared the smell despite never smelling it before. Supports epigenetics
Tienari
2004, found that group of Finnish adoptees most likely to develop schizophrenia had biological relatives with a history of the disorder and had dysfunctional relationships with adoptive families. Being in healthy adoptive families had a high protective effect even in high-risk children.
Supports diathesis stress model but may be due to nurture as they are adoptees.
Nature vs Nurture debate essays
All paragraphs must be in favour of the interactionist approach
Free will
The basis of moral responsibility is that an individual is in charge of their own actions regardless of innate factors or influences of early experiences
Hard determinism (fatalism)
All human behaviour has a cause. Assumes that everything we think and do is dictated by internal or external forces that we cannot control
Soft determinism
All human behaviour has a cause but with some nuance. People have conscious mental control over the way they behave.
Biological determinism
Emphasises role of biology on behaviour e.g. autonomic nervous system controls stress. All behaviour is innate, inherited and determined by genes. Draws on the biological approach
Environmental determinism
Believes all behaviour is a result of conditioning and you do not have control over your behaviour. Draws on behaviourist approach. Skinner described free will as an illusion - ‘choice’ is a sum of reinforcement contingencies that have acted throughout our life
Psychic determinism
Emphasises the influence of biological drives and instincts. Draws on psychodynamic approach. Freud believes free will is an illusion and behaviour is determined by conflicts which are usually repressed in childhood. Freud believes there is no such thing as an accident e.g. slips of the tongue influenced by unconscious.
Example of psychic determinism
Gender behaviours are determined by the phallic stage and resolution of the Oedipus/Electra complex which results on the child taking on the identity of the same-sex parent
Evidence that biological determinism is not accepted by courts and operates on the idea of free will
1981, Stephen Mobley argued that he was ‘born to kill’ after killing pizza shop manager. Family had a disposition towards violent/aggressive behaviour. American court rejected this argument and believed he was guilty.
Schizophrenia
Most common type of psychosis, 1% have it. Profound disruption of cognition and emotion and loss of contact with reality. Most are diagnosed between 15-35.
What are positive and negative symptoms?
Positive - disorder adds features to your life
Negative - disorder takes away abilities of the average person
Positive symptoms of schizophrenia
Hallucinations, delusions, disorganised speech, grossly disorganised or catatonic behaviour
Negative symptoms of schizophrenia
Speech poverty (alogia), avolition, affective flattening, anhedonia
Hallucinations
Distortions/exaggerations of the senses. Most common are auditory hallucinations. Positive symptom of schizophrenia.
Delusions
Firmly held, erroneous beliefs caused by misinterpretations of experiences. Paranoid delusions believe the person is being conspired against. Delusions of grandeur involve inflated sense of self importance. Positive symptom of schizophrenia.
Disorganised speech
Problem organising thoughts and forming coherent and logical thoughts. Positive symptom of schizophrenia.
Grossly disorganised behaviour
Unable to initiate everyday tasks or function in everyday life. Positive symptom of schizophrenia.
Catatonic behaviour
Reduced reaction to environment. May include rigid posture or aimless motor activity. Positive symptom of schizophrenia.
Speech poverty (alogia)
Verbal fluency deficit. Reflects slowed or blocked thoughts. Negative symptom of schizophrenia.
Avolition
Less movement in interests and tasks. May include sitting doing nothing for a long time. Negative symptom of schizophrenia.
Affective flattening
Reduced emotional expression e.g. monotone voice. Negative symptom of schizophrenia.
Anhedonia
Loss of interest in physical/social activity and normally pleasurable activities. Social anhedonia overlaps with depression while physical anhedonia doesn’t. Negative symptom of schizophrenia.
How does the DSM-5 diagnose schizophrenia
Person must show 2 or more ‘criterion A’ symptoms, one or more ‘criterion B’ symptoms and ‘criterion C’ symptoms
Criterion A - positive and negative symptoms but only 1 required if delusions are bizarre or hallucinations are long-running or intense.
Criterion B - relates to work, relationships and self-care
Criterion C - symptoms must have lasted for 6 months or had 1 month of criterion A symptoms
Idiographic approach
Focuses on study of individuals, providing insight into human behaviour. Uses case studies. Often qualitative research. Helps people with abnormal experiences and mental health professionals. Associated with humanistic and psychodynamic
Nomothetic approach
Focuses on groups to establish normal from abnormal and general laws about human behaviour. Uses traditional scientific methods. Often quantitative data. Associated with behaviourist and biological approach
Evaluation of free will
Skinner argues free will is an illusion as our behaviour is environmentally determined. Libet et al (1983) found that motor regions become active before a person is conscious awareness of a decision meaning choices are pre-determined by the brain.
Neo-freudians such as Erich Fromm support FW while Freud didn’t. Argued that we have free will but are governed by circumstance. Fromm sees essence of human freedom in the choice between good and evil.
Evaluation of determinism
Against bio determinism - Twin studies 40% similarity in depression however even with monoxygotic twins, 20% is still up to environment. Supports environmental determinism.
For psychic determinism, any eval of the psychodynamic approach can be used
Evaluation of nomothetic approach
Empirical testing = widely accepted, high internal validity, high reliability and able to be replicate. Helped establish psych as a scientific discipline. This approach has also led to drug development
Loses sight of the whole person, no qualitative data = less representing e.g. Milgram shows that many obey destructive authority but does not have data to explain why the person obeyed
Evaluation of idiographic approach
Uses case studies which help understand the abnormal e.g. lobotomies and Phineas Gage helped understand function of frontal lobe and 1% of people are schizophrenic but studies lead to treatment. Case studies can overcome practical and ethical issues of research but have low internal validity.
Can use evaluation of unstructured interviews
Holism
Theory that parts of any whole cannot exist and cannot be understood except in relation to the whole. Gestalt psychologists (philosophists and psychologists) argue that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Breaking it down is inappropriate. Relates to humanistic approach
Reductionism
Theory that all complex systems can be understood in terms of their components. Based on scientific principle of parsimony. Split into environmental and biological
Parsimony
All behaviour (especially complex phenomena) should be explained using the most basic lowest level principles e.g. genetics, biochemistry
Kohler
1925, supports holism. Set a puzzle for a hungry chimpanzee. He was unable to reach a banana with hands but had a ‘eureka’ moment and was able to use the stick. Wouldn’t have been achieved by focusing on one component, its hand.
Alpha bias
Exaggerates difference between the sexes as fixed, real and inevitable. Likely to devalue women. Example: Wilson believed that survival efficiency causes a genetic excuse for men’s promiscuity while for women, it is ‘against their nature’ as their focus must be on raising children rather than making them.
Beta bias
Minimises differences between the sexes. Often excludes female participants. E.g. Taylor et al suggests that females often inhibit fight or flight to defend offspring/other females. This goes against common research on fight or flight centred around males.
Androcentrism
Consequence of beta bias. When ‘normal’ behaviour uses all-male research leading to female behaviour viewed as abnormal and sometimes mentally ill. E.g. Critics claim PMS is a social construct and medicalises female emotions
Cultural bias
Tendency to interpret all phenomena through the lens of one’s own culture Psychology is American dominated (in 1992, 64% psych researchers were American). Examples of studies not being cross cultural.
Etic
Looking at a culture from the outside and trying to define cultural laws
Emic
Approaching functions from inside a culture and identifies behaviours specific to a culture
Evaluation of gender bias
Research that is androcentric leads to negative assumptions about women. Helps modern researchers realise their bias to combat it; Worrell created a criteria to avoid gender bias in research in 1992. Shows psychological cannot be detached from politics.
Cultural bias evaluation
Psychology solves cultural bias by making a collectivist-individualist distinction however this distinction is useless due to global connectivity increasing interconnectedness.
Not all psychology culturally relative e.g. facial expressions, imitation.
Co-morbidity
The extent that two or more disorders occur in a patient. 50% of schizophrenia patients also have depression. 12% of schizophrenia patient also have OCD. Compared to the normal rate of schizophrenia = 1%
Reliability in schizophrenia
Consistency of measurement of diagnosis. It is expected that the measurement produces the same data. Inter-rater reliability refers to the consistency between clinicians and diagnosis. Diagnosis has inter-rater reliability of 0.11 and agreement of severity of symptoms is 0.40
Symptom overlap
When symptoms of a disorder are not unique to that disorder, making diagnosis difficult. Most ppl with schizophrenia have enough symptoms of disorders that they can also receive atleast 1 other diagnosis. (Read, 2004)
Validity in schizophrenia
The extent to which a diagnosis actually reflects the disorder. In schizophrenia, the DSM-V is often measured. Depends on reliability - cannot be valid if not reliable
US vs UK psychiatrists in diagnosing schizophrenia
Copeland (1971) gave psychiatrists a description of a patient. 69% of US psychiatrists diagnosed. 2% of UK psychiatrists diagnosed
Impact of patient’s culture on schizophrenia diagnosis
Many African and Indian people experience playful voices while US often have harsh voices. Brekke and Barrio (1997) found that Afro-Americans and Latinos groups are seen to have less symptoms than white groups. Harrison et al found that incidence rate for schizophrenia 8x higher for Afro-Carribeans in the UK than white groups
Gender bias in schizophrenia diagnosis
Broverman et al (1970) found that US clinitians aligned healthy behaviour with male behaviour so women were perceived as less mentally healthy. Loring and Powell (1988) psychiatrists read description of patients 56% of males diagnosed while 20% of females diagnosed.
Schizophrenia recovery
Has poor predictive validity. 20% recover previous level of functioning, 10% show significant improvement. Can depend on gender, academic achievement, social skills and family support
Problems of co-morbidity
Weber et al (2009) looked at 6 million hospital discharge records and found that schizophrenics with other medical problems e.g. diabetes, asthma received lower standard of care.
Evidence of genetic basis of schizophrenia
Gottesman found two schizophrenic parents have a 46% chance of a schizophrenic child. One schizophrenic parent has a chance of 13%.
(Twin studies of monozygotic twins show 40% concordance rate. 8% for dizygotic twins.)
Dopamine hypothesis
Excess dopamine causes positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Resulting from high D2 receptors which fire too often and result in more dopamine on post-synaptic receptors. Drugs that increase dopamine cause more hallucinations and delusions, drugs that decrease dopamine suppress positive symptoms.
Revised dopamine hypothesis
By Davis & Kahn 1991. Positive symptoms caused by excess dopamine in subcortical areas (e.g. mesolimbic pathway). Negative symptoms come from dopamine deficit in mesocortical pathway of prefrontal cortex
Neural correlation schizophrenia
PET scans show dopamine deficit in dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex of schizophrenic patients and overall functional impairment of PFC. Research also suggests schizophrenia may be due to abnormally active hippocampus.
White and grey matter schizophrenia
Grey matter - Responsible for thinking and processing. Schizophrenics have less grey matter usually in the frontal and temporal lobe. Less tissues = more symptoms.
White matter - Responsible for connecting parts and efficient processing. Schizophrenics have abnormalities in white matter
Limitations on studies of genetic basis of schizophrenia
Schizophrenia running in families may be due to rearing or negative emotional climate and MZ twins treated more similarly. Studies on adoptive children inheriting schizophrenia from biological parents may be due to non random allocation of adoptive families as they are often informed of genetic background.
Evidence supporting dopamine hypothesis
Meta analysis (Leucht et al) found antipsychotic drugs more significant than placebo at treating positive and negative symptoms
Evidence against dopamine hypothesis
Noll argues that 1/3 of people taking antipsychotics do not benefit at all. Psychotic symptoms can also be experienced despite normal dopamine levels
Evaluation of neural correlation of schizophrenia
Research support - Meta analysis (Vita et al) found that schizophrenics had less grey matter than healthy control brains
Suggests early detection and can prevent development as diagnosis often occurs when symptoms already appear. Role in developing treatment
Theory of sexual selection
Developed by Darwin (1874). An evolutionary explanation of partner preference. Attributes or behaviours that increase reproductive success passed on. Includes male competition and female choice to select sexual partner
Anisogamy
The explanation for female choice and male competition. Refers to differences between male and female sex cells. Male gametes small, mobile, produced in large amounts and do not require lots of energy. Female gametes large, static, produced in intervals over years and require lots of energy.
Inter-sexual selection
Preferred strategy of female. Focused on resources as females make a greater investment of time, commitment and resources. Choosing the wrong partner is more costly.
Runaway Process/Fisher’s Sexy Sons Hypothesis
Females mate with males who have desirable characteristics which is inherited by her son and increases the likelihood of successive generations. Consequence of inter-sexual selection
Intra-sexual selection
Preferred strategy of males. Quantity over quality. Results in dimorphism. Has behavioural consequences e.g. males encouraged to act aggressively to compete and often prefer youth and fertility. Anisogamy believed that this is the optimum strategy as men have a lack of post-coital responsibility (child-rearing)
Dimorphism
Result of intra-sexual selection. The obvious differences between males and females as the winner of male competition gets to pass on characteristics
Strength of theory of sexual selection
Research support
Evidence of female choice in heterosexual relationships. Clark and Hatfield (1989) psychology students ask if they would like to sleep with them or go out with them. No females agreed but 75% of males agreed
Buss (1989) surveys 10,000 adults in 33 countries and find that females value resource related characteristics while males value reproductive characteristics
Limitation of theory of sexual selection
Ignores social change. People shift away from evolutionary basis as women’s place in the workplace means they don’t need to be as resource based. Development of contraception also has weight on discussions of promiscuity
Self-disclosure
Revealing personal information about yourself to develop a relationship
Physical attractiveness
How appealing we find a face. Theorised to be important in forming relationships. There is a general agreement on attractive features across cultures
Matching hypothesis
Proposed by Walster, 1966. The belief that we don’t select the most attractive person to be our partner but we are attracted to those who match us in physical attractiveness
The halo effect
When a distinguishing feature (e.g. attractiveness) has a disproportionate influence on our judgement of another person’s attributes (e.g. personality)
Facial symmetry in physical attractiveness
Shackelford and Larsen (1997) found facial symmetry is found more attractive as it is taken as a sign of genetic fitness
What kind of features are considered physically attractive?
Neotenous (baby-face) features, e.g. large eyes, delicate chin, small nose, as it triggers a protective/caring instinct which is valuable for females
Research that supports that physical attractiveness is important in forming relationships
McNulty et al found initial attractiveness was a large factor in relationships even after marriage.
Research that doesn’t support that physical attractiveness is important in forming relationships
Towhey asked male and female participants to rate how likely they would target someone based off a photograph. They also completed MACHO scale for sexist attitudes. High scores cared more about attractiveness than low scores of sexism.
Research support for halo effect
Palmer and Peterson found that attractive people were rated as politically knowledgeable and persisted even if they knew they had no expertise showing dangers of political process.
Limitations of Walster’s matching hypothesis
Waltster’s measurement of attractiveness was not reliable as raters only had a few seconds to judge. Taylor et al found on a dating site that many people sought dates with those who were more physically attractive than them.
Support for Walster’s matching hypothesis
Feingold’s meta-analysis found correlation between ratings of attractiveness and romantic partners. Studies looked at actual partners.
Cross-cultural research on physical attractiveness
Cunningham et al found that female features of large eyes, high eyebrows, small nose were found attractive by Hispanic and Asian males.
Cross-cultural research on the halo effect
Wheeler and Kim found that both Korean and American students judged attractive people as trustworthy, mature and friendly.
Breadth and depth
Theory by Altman and Taylor. Elements of self-disclosure which increase commitment. Start = narrow breadth, low-risk info (depth). Progresses to wide depth and high-risk info.
Social penetration
Process of revealing inner selves and penetrating deeper into each other’s lives. Theorised by Altman and Taylor.
Reciprocity in self-disclosure
Theorised by Reis and Shaver. For relationship to develop, needs reciprocal element. When revealing something about yourself, your partner should respond rewardingly, deepening intimacy.
Filter theory levels
1: Social demography, 2: similarities in attitudes, 3: complementarity
Social demography
1st level of filter theory. Factors that influence the chance of partners meeting e.g. proximity, social class, education, ethnicity, religion. Outcome of filtering is ‘homogamy’ where you are more likely to have a relationship with someone who is culturally similar.
Similarities in attitudes
2nd level of filter theory. Partners share important beliefs. Encourages communication and self-disclosure. Kerckhoff and Davis (1962) found similar beliefs was important in relationships under 18 months. Byrne (1997) found that similarity causes attraction.
Complementarity
3rd level of filter theory. When someone has a trait the other lacks. Kerckhoff and Davis (1962) found that complementarity was important for long term couples. In later stages, opposites attract as they feel like they form a whole.
Development of drug therapy of schizophrenia
Neurotransmitter dopamine was discovered in 1952 and drugs to target dopamine pathways were then developed.
Antipsychotics
Can be typical or atypical. Targets psychotic disorders (schizophrenia, bipolar) by reducing dopamine transmission
Typical antipsychotics
Target positive symptoms, blocks dopamine receptors (75% of D2 receptors must be blocked to be effective) but may block D2 receptors in other areas of brain causing harmful side effects. Can lead to tardive dyskinesia due to prolonged blocking of dopamine
Atypical antipsychotics
Only temporarily block D2 receptors, avoiding side effects. Also controls serotonin receptors so is useful as an antidepressant. Combats both negative and positive symptoms. Acts TEMPORARILY to reduce side effects
Strengths of antipsychotics
Leucht et al’s meta analysis of 65 studies showed that 64% of patients who were taken off antipsychotics and given placebos relapsed within 12 months. Only 27% relapsed with continued antipsychotics.
Limitations of antipsychotics
Typical antipsychotics produce movement problems e.g. Parkinsons in 50% of patients, tardive dyskinesia after extended treatment (involuntary facial movements). Ross and Read argue that medication reinforces biological explanation and demotivates patients to get better.
Research comparing typical and atypical antipsychotics
Crossley et al found no significant differences between effectiveness but found patients on atypical gained more weight but had no movement disorders.
Psychological explanations for schizophrenia
Double bind theory, expressed emotion families, cognitive explanations
Double bind theory
Bateson et al (1956) suggest that if children receive contradictory verbal and non-verbal messages from their parents, they have a warped perception of reality and could develop schizophrenia
Expressed Emotion
Family communication style which talk about schizophrenic patients negatively. Talks more and listens less to patient. Those with EE familes 4x more likely to relapse.
Cognitive explanations of delusions and hallucinations
Delusional thinking characterised by egocentric bias, hypervigilance leads to excessive attention on senses resulting in hallucinations
Strengths of psychological explanations of schizophrenia
Adoption studies (Tienari et al) show that it was not only biological factors as those adopted matched with disturbed families. Patients recalled double bind statements from parents in Berger (1965) but recall may be unreliable. CBT is effective suggesting that cognitive explanations are important
Limitations of psychological explanations of schizophrenia
Effect of EE families on schizophrenia depends on the type of person, some people are more resilient to negative comments. Alternative theories: diathesis stress model (genes, birth complications activated by stressors)
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)
Recommends CBT to everyone with schizophrenia to deal with residual symptoms which are not dealt by with antipsychotic drugs
Cognitive behavioural therapy for psychosis (CBTp)?
NICE recommends 16 sessions for patients which challenges distorted beliefs as it believes they negatively influence feelings and behaviour. Consists of assessment, engagement, normalisation, critical collaborative analysis and developing alternative explanations.
Detailed stages of cognitive behavioural therapy for psychosis
Assessment: discusses thoughts and goals
Engagement: ABC model, therapist empathises with patients perspective
Normalisation: patients reassured about experiencing positive symptoms making them feel less anxious and more likely to believe in recovery
Critical collaborative analysis: therapist gently challenges beliefs in a non-judgemental way
Developing alternative explanations: patient develops own alternative explanations to old beliefs with help of therapist
Strengths of CBTp
NICE review (2014) found compared with drug treatment alone, relapses occur less and often occur 18 months after treatment stops. Also found they are efficient in reducing symptoms.
Limitations of CBTp
NICE review has no information on effects of CBTp alone as CBTp is paired with drug treatment - question of causality. Addington and Addington (2005) found CBTp is not suitable when symptoms have not been stabilised by drugs. Only 1 in 10 psychotic patients are offered CBTp so it is mostly unavailable and many refuse to attend it. Meta-analyses only show CBTp has a small effect on positive symptoms. Studies on effectiveness which were more rigorous found weaker effects of CBTp (Wykes et al 2008)
Epigenetics
Change in genetic activity without changing genes themselves
Application of nature/nurture debate
Application to treatment of OCD. Nestadt et al found heritability rate of OCD was .76 so they can inform families of risk so they can reduce stress to prevent the development of OCD
Roberts et al (2000)
Found that adolescents with a strong sense of fatalism had a higher risk of depression therefore the belief in free will is important to maintaining mental health
Strengths of filter theory
Assumes that key factors of relationship change over time = more nuanced than other theories. Research support, Winch (1958) found matching hypothesis is important in the early relationship but complementarity is important for married couples
Weaknesses of filter theory
Failure to replicate (unreliable), Levinger suggests that due to social changes (e.g. online dating which reduces social demography) and failure to recognise that depth and breadth varies between partners. Cutoff between long and short term relationships is not clear in research (Kerckhoff and Davis suggest cut off = 18 months)
Believes similarity causes attraction but Davis and Rusbult (2001) discovered attitude alignment where similarity develops over time (not causational)
Family therapy
Supports carers of patients to reduce stress/EE and relapse as outcome for patient depends on relationships. Recommended by NICE to all patients who live/in contact with family. At least 10 sessions over 3-12 months.
What things are considered in family therapy?
Reduce emotional climate, enhance family’s understanding and ability to solve and anticipate problem, reduce expression of negative emotions, telling them what to expect, setting boundaries, improving communication.
Pharoah et al
2010, Review of randomised controlled trials in Europe, Asia, NA. Compared use of family therapy to just antipsychotics. Found reduction in relapse and hospitalisation up to 2 years, increased medication compliance and improvement in general functioning but no effect on independent living or employment.
Strengths of family therapy
Pharoah et al shows effectiveness, reduces costs of hospitalisation because of lower relapse rates despite extra cost of family therapy
Limitations of family therapy
In Pharoah et al, many Chinese studies did not use random allocation or state if they used blind trials = low internal validity. May not be worth it if patient has a low EE family - Garety et al (2008) found patients without carers had higher relapse rates than those with carers.
Reduced cues theory
Sproull and Kiesler (1986), virtual relationships less effective due to lack of cues reducing identity (de-individuation) which leads to disinhibition (communicating bluntly/aggressively)
Hyperpersonal model
Walther (2011) virtual relationships are more personal, intimate and have more self-disclosure which happens earlier. Sender has selective self-preservation (controls self-disclosure and cues) which may be hyperhonest or hyperdishonest. Results in more positive impression which reinforces sender’s behaviour.
Bargh et al
2002, supports hyperpersonal model and believes that awareness of anonymity, you feel less accountability and disclose more to strangers than your closest relationship
Gating
McKenna and Bargh (1999) describe gates as obstacles to form (e.g. unattractiveness, social anxiety). Virtual relationships reduce gates and social demography so self-disclosure is more frequent. More likely for people to act like their real selves but also allows people to deceive and create false identities
Reduced cues theory evaluation
Cues are not absent but are different - Walther and Tidwell (1995) people use timing, style and slang as cues.
Hyperpersonal model evaluation
Ruppell et al (2017) meta-analysis of self-report studies found face-to-face relationships had greater breadth and depth, refuting the model.
Whitty and Joinson (2009) found questions online are direct, proving and intimate (hyperhonest or dishonest)
Walther (2011) argues model doesn’t consider that relationships can be both online and offline and disclosure in virtual relationships is influenced by offline interactions and vice versa
Gating evaluation
Online relationships help people with social anxiety with gating and expressing themselves. 71% of romantic relationships formed by shy people online lasted at least 2 years compared to 49% of offline relationships formed by shy people
Social Exchange Theory
Thibault and Kelley (1959), explains how relationships develop. An economic theory based on operant conditioning. Relationship is maintained by rewards outweighing costs.
Stages of relationship development in Social Exchange Theory
Sampling stage, bargaining stage, commitment stage, institutionalisation stage
Sampling stage
Exploring rewards and costs of social exchange by experimenting with them in our own relationships (not just romantic), or by observing others.
Bargaining stage
Marks beginning of relationship, partners start exchanging rewards and costs, negotiating and identifying what is most profitable.
Commitment stage
Relationship develops, sources of costs and rewards become predictable and relationship becomes more stable. Rewards increase and costs lessen.
Institutionalisation stage
Partners are now settled down. Norms of relationship, in terms of rewards and costs, are firmly established.
Lawler and Yoon
1993, positive views develop from exchanges that result in rewards and that people are less likely to commit to exchanges that produce little to no positive feelings. Supports SET
Rusbult (1983) on SET
Study on heterosexual college students over seven months using weekly questionnaires. SET found useful when applied to the maintenance of relationships; during the ‘honeymoon’ phase of the relationship, the balance of cost and rewards was ignored. As the relationship continued, the degree of satisfaction became more important.
Weaknesses of SET
Alternative - Argyle argues that we don’t start to monitor costs and rewards until we are dissatisfied with the relationship. Hard to measure, concepts are vague and subjective. Ignores emotional side. Unlikely that both parties benefit equally. Clark and Mills argue that the idea of keeping a score is unrealistic.
Strengths of SET
Kurdek (1995) gave gay and straight couples questionnaires on relationship commitment and SET variables. Found the most committed partners perceived the most rewards and fewest costs and viewed alternatives as relatively unattractive. Application to Integrated CBT which aims to increase rewards and decrease costs - Christensen et al. (2004) found 2/3 couples using ICBT reported significant improvement in relationship. Rusbult and Martz (1995) argue that when investments are high (e.g. children and financial security) and alternatives are low (e.g. nowhere else to live and no money) people stay in abusive relationships.
Equity theory
Walster (1978) proposed that relationships depend on partners having the same amount of profit (ratio) rather than having the same costs and rewards. In lack of equity, one partner overbenefits and feels guilty and the other underbenefits and feels angry.
Strengths of equity theory
Explains abuse - underbenefitted will revise their perception of costs and rewards to seem equitable as they are more motivated to save the relationship. Research support - Utne et al (1984) self-report married couples survey who had been together 2 years before marrying were more satisfied if they were equitable
Weaknesses of equity theory
Cultural bias - Aumer et al (2007) couples from individualist cultures consider equity the most satisfying but collectivist cultures enjoy overbenefitting more (study incl both male and female ptcpts).
Research against - Berg and Quinn (1986) found that relationships ended despite being equitable showing that other variables are more important in relationships.
Duck’s phase model
Explains how relationships end through phases and reaching thresholds, not an event. Phases: intra-psychic, dyadic phase, social phase, grave-dressing phase
Intra-psychic phase
Cognitive process occurs in dissatisfied partner weighing up costs and rewards and evaluating alternatives. Begins to make plans for future.
Dyadic phase
Partners cannot avoid talking about the relationship anymore. Series of confrontations which either result in determination to continue breaking up or desire to repair.
Social phase
Breakup starts to involve social network and is made public. Usually the point of no return. Partners seek support and friends either reassure or blame the other partner.
Grave dressing phase
Aftermath of breakup where favourable story about breakup is created allowing both partners to maintain a positive reputation at the expense of the other partner. Gossip plays an important role. Positive traits that were endearing are now seen negatively.
Duck and Rollie
2006, introduced a 5th phase called resurrection phase. Ex-partners apply the experiences they gained to future relationships. Suggests progression is not inevitable and they can return to an earlier point at any phase.
Strengths of Duck’s phase model
Model can be used to prevent breakdown of relationships. Duck (1994) recommends in the intra-psychic phase, people should focus on the positive aspects of their partner and improve communication in the dyadic phase.
Weaknesses of Duck’s phase model
Based on individualist culture (US), Moghaddam (1993) suggests that in collectivist cultures it is harder to end a relationship as it involves wider family while individualistic cultures voluntarily end relationships.
Research is retrospective therefore participants in self-report may not reliably recall e.g. intra-psychic stage is usually long so recall can be particularly distorted.
Rusbult’s investment model
Developed from SET. Identifies factor affecting commitment: satisfaction, comparison with alternatives, investment
Satisfaction (Rusbult’s investment model)
Satisfying relationship judged by comparing rewards and costs and if they are getting more than they expect based on past experiences and social norms.
Comparison with alternative (Rusbult’s investment model)
Linked to levels of satisfaction, if they would be more satisfied with a different or no partner.
Investment (Rusbult’s investment model)
Most important factor of commitment. Extent of resources associated with the relationship which they would lose if it ended. Intrinsic (money, energy) or extrinsic (house, children)
Strengths of Rusbult’s investment model
Le and Agnew (2003) meta-analysis including 11,000 participants and 5 countries. Found satisfaction, comparison with alternatives, investment all predicted commitment in straight and gay relationships however it is only correlational. Explains why people remain in abusive relationships due to investment and they have fewer alternatives.
Weaknesses of Rusbult’s investment model
Model is too simple - Goodfriend and Agnew (2008) say there is more investment that just resources and that early relationships will have made few investments but instead should include investments they plan to make.
Model mainly supported by self-report methods showing subjectivity (but as this measures perception of relationship, it may be useful)
Parasocial relationships
McCutcheon and colleagues (2002) developed Celebrity Attitude Scale. Attachments in which a fan knows all about the celebrity but the celebrity doesn’t know who the fan is. Not just celebrities can be fictional characters or team.
3 stages of parasocial relationships
Entertainment-social, intense-personal, borderline pathological.
Entertainment social
Least intense level of celebrity worship. Views them as sources of entertainment and fuel for social interaction.
Intense-personal
Intermediate level of celebrity worship. Greater personal involvement in parasocial relationships. Has obsessive thoughts and intense feelings. May consider them as a soul mate
Borderline pathological
The strongest level of celebrity worship. Uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours. Might spend lots of money on them or perform illegal acts on the celebrity
Absorption-addiction model
McCutcheon (2002) tendency to form parasocial relationships in terms of deficiencies. Allows them to escape reality. Stressful life events may trigger intense-personal to borderline pathological.
Absorption - seeking fulfilment motivates to become pre-occupied with their existence and identity with them
Addiction - individual needs to sustain commitment by feeling a stronger involvement with the celebrity. Leads to extreme behaviours/delusions
Attachment theory explanation of parasocial relationships
Tendency to form parasocial relationships in adolescence and adulthood because of attachment difficulties in early childhood (insecure-resistant and avoidant). Insecure-resistant form parasocial relationships as adults as they have unfulfilled needs. Insecure-avoidant prefer to avoid pain and rejection through parasocial relationships.
Token economy
Form of therapy encouraging desirable behaviours via reinforcement. Rewards (tokens) = secondary reinforcers when desirable behaviours displayed. Tokens exchanged for primary reinforcers which give pleasure (food/privileges). Token must be repeatedly presented alongside or before reward to cause association
How is token economy applied to schizophrenia?
Negative symptoms countered by encouraging positive behaviours like selfcare (washing, eating)
Ayllon and Azrin
1968 used token economy on ward of female schizophrenic patients. Given plastic tokens with one gift (e.g. watching movie) for behaviours (chores). Dramatically increased desirable behaviours performed
Sran and Borrero
2010, participants had higher response rate to generalised tokens which could only be exchanged for 1 edible item
Kazdin
1977, frequently exchange of token and items = rapidly enforces behaviours. Effectiveness decreases if more time passes between token and receiving item
Strengths of token economy
Research support - Dickerson et al (2005) 11/13 studies of token economy applied to schizophrenia reported beneficial effects but had some methodological shortcomings.
Limitations of token economy
Difficult to assess success - Comer (2013) suggests that patients in ward included in a programme so there are confounding variables e.g. increased staff attention.
Only works in hospital settings where there is 24 hr care and rewards are provided consistently and behaviours may not continue when they are discharged.
McCutcheon et al on attachment types and celebrity attitudes
2006, Measured attachment types and celebrity related attitudes of 299 participants. Found insecure attachments were not more likely to form parasocial relationships than secure attachments. Shows attachment is irrelevant to parasocial relationships and that applying it is deterministic.
Strengths of parasocial relationships theory
Parasocial relationships could be beneficial for insecure attachments as their relationship can give them feelings which they felt were missing from their childhood. When kept below borderline pathological, it can be a way to cope.
Schmid and Klimmt (2011) found that in Germany (individualist) and Mexico (collectivist), there were similar levels of parasocial attachment to Harry Potter showing cross-cultural research using online questionnaire (algorithm?)
Maltby et al (2005) supports absorption-addiction model.
Research shows that entertainment-social linked to extraverted personalities, intense-personal to neurotic and borderline pathological to psychotic personalities.
Maltby et al (2005)
Supports absorption-addiction model. 14-16yrs male and females investigated for link between body image and celebrity worship. Females reported intense-personal parasocial relationships with same-sex celebrities whose body they admired and also had poor body image which may have been a precursor to developing eating disorders.
Support for schizophrenia having a genetic component
MZ twins at greater risk than DZ twins but concordance rate for MZ twins is 50% meaning there are other factors.
What stressors can activate the diathesis stress model for schizophrenia?
Childhood trauma, living in big cities increases risk of developing. Varese et al (2012) children who experienced severe childhood trauma 3x more likely to develop schizophrenia. Vassos et al (2012) found risk of schizophrenia was 2.37x higher in urban than rural areas. More minor stresses can activate it for high risk and severe stressful events for low risk.
Limitations of diathesis stress model for schizophrenia
Not genetically exclusive - can be caused by brain damage due to lack of oxygen during birth increasing risk of schizophrenia by 4x. Women infected with cytomegalovirus during pregnancy increases risk but only if mother and child have specific gene but medication during pregnancy can prevent this.
Addiction definition
Physical and psychological dependence on substance or behaviour. Developed via repeated exposure to addictive substance/behaviour leading to change in brain function and behaviour
Addiction - psychological dependence
Mental and emotional need for substance/behaviour. Experiences pleasure and relieves negative feelings when engaging in behaviour. Characterised by cravings (strong desire), obsessive thoughts and inability to stop despite negative consequences
Addiction - physical dependence
Body becomes accustomed to substance and requires it to function normally. Repeated use causes neuroadaptation (brain adjusts to substance). Absense = withdrawal symptoms. Common in nicotine, alcohol, opioids.
Addiction - tolerance
When a person needs increasing amounts of a substance to experience the same effect due to adaptation. Metabolic tolerance - more enzymes produced to break down substance.
Cellular tolerance - changed brain receptor activity making it less effective.
Learned tolerance - behavioural adjustments to reduce impact of substance (functioning while intoxicated)
Withdrawal syndrome from addiction
Unpleasant physical and psychological symptoms when stopping or reducing substance use. Body struggles to function without it. Physical symptoms - shaking, sweating, nausea, headaches, fatigue. Psychological symptoms - anxiety, depression, irritability, cravings. Reinforces cycle of addiction as person wants to relieve discomfort.
Genetic vulnerability to addiction
Variations in genes affect dopamine reward system (DRD2 gene) makes individuals sensitive to rewarding effects of substances due to having less dopamine receptors increasing vulnerability.
What personality traits are linked to addiction vulnerability?
Impulsivity (increasing risky behaviour and not considering consequences), sensation seeking, high neuroticism (high anxiety, emotional instability.
Biological factors which may affect vulnerability to addiction
Chronic stress increases risk and addiction may provide emotional discomfort. High levels of cortisol (stress) increase activity and effect on brain’s reward system. Trauma increases risk
Social factors affecting vulnerability to addiction
Peer pressure and social acceptance of behaviour/substance especially during adolescence. Social learning = imitating behaviour of those around them. Media representations of drugs/gambling as glamorous/rebellious may promote. Celebrity endorsements and advertising. Gambling sponsorships in sports normalises gambling.
Support of genetic basis of addiction
Kendler (2012) found addiction to alcohol, cannabis and nicotine had strong heritability in twin studies showing genetic factor in addiction vulnerability.
Limitations of biological, psychological and social factors affecting vulnerability of addiction theories
Genetic basis suggests it is inevitable (deterministic) ignoring personal choice and environmental factors. Research shows not everyone with a genetic vulnerability or impulsive personality develops an addiction. Can use different risk factors as alternative explanations of each other. Argue that holistic model that combines all factors is needed to fully explain addiction. Some individuals are more resistant despite high exposure due to personality traits e.g. conscientiousness and emotional stability.
Strengths of biological, psychological and social factors affecting vulnerability of addiction theories
Understanding risk factors can help develop targeted prevention strategies. Screening for genetic vulnerability allows early intervention. CBT helps highly impulsive individuals to manage behaviour.
Neurochemical explanation of nicotine addiction
Nicotine activates reward pathway (mesolimbic pathway) and stimulates nAChRs (nicotinic acetylcholine receptors) in the VTA (ventral tegmental area) triggering dopamine release. Positive emotions = reinforces. Brain adapts to repeated use and becomes tolerant. If nicotine levels drop, withdrawal occurs and creates a cycle.
Support for the neurochemical explanation of nicotine addiction
PET scans show increased dopamine after nicotine use. Brody et al (2014) found smoking increased dopamine release in reward pathway = empirical evidence. Corrigall et al (1994) found rats self-administered nicotine into the VTA to increase dopamine levels and had consistency of findings across species = generalisabilty.
Limitations of the neurochemical explanation of nicotine addiction
Animal studies (Corrigall et al) may lack ecological validity as human addiction is affected by other factors such as social and psychological factors. Explanation only focuses on biological factors e.g. some only smoke in social settings showing environmental cues affect. Not everyone who tries nicotine becomes addicted suggesting other factors than biological factors are important. Need for interactionist approach.
Classical conditioning applied to nicotine addiction
Nicotine associated with environmental cues (e.g. coffee, alcohol, stress). Nicotine creates positive association with environmental cues via dopamine release. Cues become conditioned stimuli that trigger cravings.
Operant conditioning on nicotine addiction
Positive reinforcement - increase dopamine = pleasure and relaxation
Negative reinforcement - reduces withdrawal symptoms e.g. irritability and restlessness.
Increased likelihood of repeating nicotine use.
Cue reactivity
Exposure to smoking-related cues triggers conditioned responses. e.g. craving after seeing someone else smoke
Social learning theory on nicotine
Individuals observe and imitate smoking of role models (parents, peers). Behaviour vicariously reinforced by social acceptance.
Example: glamourised media portrayal increases likelihood of initiation and person idolises celebrity
Strengths of the learning theory of nicotine
Carter and Tiffany (1999) supports classical and operant conditioning. Smokers exposed to smoking related cues (e.g. cigarette packets) experienced cravings. Shows environmental triggers maintain nicotine addiction. Application to cue exposure therapy reducing cravings by desensitising smokers to environmental cues. Application to nicotine replacement therapy reducing withdrawal symptoms by breaking negative reinforcement.
Limitations of the learning theory of nicotine
Ignores biological factors such as dopamine reward system and genetic vulnerability. Learning theory alone cannot explain addiction. Not all smokers addicted despite similar environmental exposure. Shows there are other factors from environment e.g. neurotic personality/sensation seeking.
Classical conditioning applied to gambling
Environmental cues associated with excitement of gambling (colours, sounds). Cues trigger cravings and anticipation of reward.
Operant conditioning applied to gambling
Positive reinforcement - monetary rewards, excitement
Negative reinforcement - relieving boredom and stress
Uses variable ratio schedule (unpredictable rewards) to make behaviour persist despite negative feelings from losses
Partial reinforcement (gambling)
When rewards are given only some of the time instead of every time. Makes behaviour resistant to dying out as the gambler learns that persistence leads to rewards.
Variable Reinforcement Schedules (gambling)
Gambling operates on this - rewards are given unpredictably. Most effective reinforcement schedule as uncertainty increases excitement and keeps gambler engaged.
SLT on gambling
More likely to gamble if they observe others being rewarded for gambling. Reinforced by positive media portrayals
Strengths of learning theories of gambling addiction
Research - Skinner (1953) lab experiment found operant conditioning makes behaviour more persistent if under a variable reinforcement schedule. Increase internal validity.
Application to behavioural therapy (e.g. aversion therapy associating an unpleasant environment with gambling) which break positive association between gambling and reward
Limitations of learning theories of gambling addiction
Ignores cognitive/biological factors e.g. dopamine release reinforcing behaviour in brain. Doesn’t explain why gamblers keep gambling despite loss - alternative theories (gambler’s fallacy, near-miss bias)
Cognitive biases gambling
Gamblers have illusion of control (believe they have more control over outcomes than they do). Additionally misinterprets near misses as signs of future success (near-miss bias).
Gambler’s fallacy
Belief that losing streak increases win likelihood, encourages gambling despite mounting losses
Self-efficacy and Attribution bias
Gamblers see win as due to personal skill (internal attribution) and see losses as due to external factors reinforcing behaviour despite loss
Support for cognitive explanations of gambling addiction
Griffiths (1994) gamblers on fruit-machines found to display cognitive distortions (e.g. talking to machine) used real-life observations. Used to develop CBT to identify and challenge cognitive distortions reducing urge to gamble
Cognitive explanations of gambling addiction
Cognitive bias (illusion of control, near-miss bias), gambler’s fallacy, self-efficacy and attribution bias
Limitations of cognitive explanations of gambling addiction
Ignores biological factors (dopamine release in reward pathways and genetic influence). Not all gamblers develop addiction despite cognitive distortions suggesting that personality and genetics are more important in predisposing them to addiction.
Drug therapy for addiction
Acts on neurotransmitters to reduce cravings, withdrawal symptoms and the rewarding effect. Targets systems such as dopamine, serotonin, opioid receptors. Types: opioid replacement therapy, medications for alcohol addiction, nicotine replacement therapy (NRT)
Opioid Replacement Therapy
Opioids replaced by methadone and buprenorphine which activate opioid receptors and reduce cravings/withdrawal symptoms without using illegal drugs and allowing them to engage in therapy.
Medication for alcohol addiction
Naltrexone - blocks opioid receptors, reducing cravings and reward from alcohol.
Acamprosate - restores balance to brain chemicals affected by alcohol use
Disulfiram - causes nausea and vomiting to associate alcohol with negative consequences
Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT)
Includes nicotine patches (slow release of nicotine to reduce cravings), gum, lozenges (sweets). Controlled gradual reduction in nicotine levels. Increases chances of quitting smoking long term.
Limitations of drug therapy against addiction
Effectiveness depends on medication adherence and individual differences. Access to medication limited by regulations and stigma. Disulfiram unpleasant to take and hard for continued use. Drugs alone cannot treat social and psychological causes so therapy needed. Relapse possible even with medication. Some medication can cause dependence or side effects.
Behavioural interventions of reducing addiction
Modifies behaviours linked to addiction using learning theory. Types: aversion therapy, covert sensitisation, contingency management
Aversion therapy
Uses classical conditioning, pairs addiction with unpleasant consequence e.g. disulfiram
Covert sensitisation
Used imagery-based aversion therapy. Imagining engaging in addiction then visualising unpleasant consequences to condition brain to associate addiction with negative outcomes.
Contingency Management
Used operant conditioning/positive reinforcement e.g. receiving privileges for negative drug test. Behaviour changes through reward-based motivation
Strengths of behavioural interventions of reducing addiction
Aversion therapy effective - Smith et al (2014) found aversion therapy for alcohol significantly reduced relapse rated over 6 months.
Covert sensitisation effective - McConaghy et al (1983) found more effective than aversion therapy for gambling.
Covert sensitisation more ethical as it avoids physical discomfort
Contingency management effective - Higgins et al (1994) found voucher-based reinforcement increased abstinence rates in cocaine users
Limitations of behavioural interventions of reducing addiction
Aversion therapy requires ongoing reinforcement as there are high relapse rates once the negative association fades. Aversion therapy unethical (causes physical discomfort). Covert sensitisation has distressing mental imagery which has ethical and psychological risks. Individual differences - some respond better to positive than negative reinforcement. Addiction severity, motivation and mental health influence success rate
CBT to reduce addiction
Talking therapy to change maladaptive thoughts and behaviours linked to addiction. Components: functional analysis, cognitive restructuring, behavioural strategies, relapse prevention.
Functional analysis
Part of CBT for addiction. Identifies trigger for addiction by exploring thoughts and feelings leading to substance use.
Cognitive restructuring
Part of CBT for addiction. Challenges irrational thoughts. E.g. “I can’t cope without smoking” into “I can manage stress through healthier strategies”. Healthier thinking developed
Behavioural strategies
Part of CBT for addiction. Teaches coping mechanisms to resist addiction. E.g. distraction techniques, relaxation methods, alternative behaviours.
Relapse prevention
Part of CBT for addiction. Client recognises early signs to relapse and develops plan to prevent it. Builds self-efficacy (confidence to resist relapse)
Strengths of CBT for addiction
Petry et al (2006) found CBT reduced gambling frequency and financial losses after treatment. Also effective for multiple addictions. Addresses underlying thought process = long-term improvement. Marlatt et al (2005) found CBT helped clients abstain for longer than no treatment. Client is active in treatment = develops coping skills, increases motivation
Limitations of CBT for addiction
Demanding - requires regular sessions, homework and active participation. High drop-out rates with clients of low motivation and mental health issues. Some clients are more resistive to challenging thought. Works better for behavioural addictions than chemical addictions which may require more medication alongside CBT
Theory of Planned Behaviour
Ajzen (1985) explains behaviour through intentions. Factors: attitudes (evaluation of outcomes), subjective norms (social pressure to perform or resist), perceived behavioural control (confidence to perform or resist). Can be applied to addiction
Attitudes to addictive behaviour (TPB)
Beliefs of positive and negative outcomes are evaluated. If negative consequences outweigh benefits, motivation to quit increases
Subjective norms (TPB)
Influence of peers on addiction. Peers likely to influence behaviour - even with negative attitudes, strong social pressure maintains addiction
Perceived Behavioural Control (TPB)
Confidence to resist cravings and avoid triggers of addiction. High control -> low relapse
Strengths of TPB
Armitage and Conner (2001), meta-analysis shows TPB can predict health-related behaviours and explains why people engage in addiction despite negative thinking. McEachan et al (2011) found positive attitudes to addiction increased indulgement. Conner et al (2007) found peer influence strongly linked to adolescent smoking. Godin et al (2005) higher perceived control linked to smoking cessation
Prochaska’s six stage model of behaviour change
Developed by Prochaska and DiClemente (1983). Includes precontemplation (no intention to change), contemplation (considering change), preparation (making plans for change, setting goals), action (modifying behaviour), maintenance (sustaining behaviour change and avoiding relapse), termination (confidence in maintaining change)
Strengths of prochaska’s six stage model of behaviour change
Application to identify where people are in the change process. DiClemente gave interventions specific to the stages and found that specific intervention gave higher quit rates.
Limitations of prochaska’s six stage model of behaviour change
Oversimplifies addiction and ignores biological and psychological factors disrupting progression. Model suggests linear progression but change is often nuanced; many individuals relapse or skip stages (West 2005). Relapse not addressed at all in model - focus on this can enhance effectiveness of model. Readiness of change can be affected by personality, motivation and social background.
