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Paper 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Types of conformity

A

Compliance, identification, internalisation

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2
Q

Compliance

A

Conforming to the ideas of the group but not changing personal opinion/behaviour

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3
Q

Identification

A

Conforming to ideas of the group because you value it and want to be apart of it. May or may not change personal opinions.

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4
Q

Internalisation

A

Accepting the group norms, even in private.

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5
Q

Informational Social Influence

A

Individuals follow behaviour because they believe the majority likely the correct information. Mostly occurs when someone is ambiguous about information.

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6
Q

Normative Social Influence

A

Individuals follow norms to avoid rejection from the group and to gain social approval

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7
Q

Aims of Asch’s study 1951

A

To investigate how social pressure from a majority can make an individual conform

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8
Q

Procedure of Asch’s study 1951

A

123 American male undergraduates were each matched with 6-8 confederates and placed second to last around a table. Asked to say which line matched another line in turns, answer obvious. 18 trials in total, 12 with incorrect answers from confederates. Control variable where individual was alone. Repeated with variations of group size, unanimity and task difficulty

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9
Q

Results of Asch’s study 1951

A

37% conformed to incorrect answers overall. 75% conformed at least once. When alone, 1% gave the incorrect answer. 50% conformed on 6 or more trials. Group size had no effect over 3 participants. One correct confederate reduced conformity by a quarter. Task difficulty increased conformity suggesting informational social influence.

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10
Q

Conclusion of Asch’s study 1951

A

The majority of people have experienced conformity either to avoid rejection from the group or because they believe the group holds correct information

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11
Q

Perrin and Spencer

A

1980, replication of Asch’s study - of 396 trials, one student conformed. Shows that conformity changes with condition. 1950s time where conformity was high due to McCarthyism.

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12
Q

Neto 1995

A

Replicates Asch’s study using young female adults from Portugal finding that many people still conformed

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13
Q

Bond and Smith 1996

A

Replicated Asch’s study in 17 different countries categorised as collectivist or individualist. Collectivist countries had higher rates of conformity.

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14
Q

Strengths of Asch’s study

A

High internal validity due to being conducted in lab conditions, easy to replicate experiment and verify findings

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15
Q

Weaknesses of Asch’s

A

Low generalisability due to volunteer group with results biased to young American male adults. Deception involved = unethical.

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16
Q

Aims of Zimbardo’s prison study

A

To find the impact of situations on power dynamics and human behaviour

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17
Q

Procedure of Zimbardo’s prison study

A

American ‘emotionally stable’ male college students randomly assigned to guard or prisoner. Prisoners arrested, blindfolded, stripped, given numbers and uniform. Guards given uniform with sunglasses and wooden club. Guards told they had absolute power over prisoners. Zimbardo acted as prison superintendent. Intended to last for 2 weeks, stopped at 6 days due to criticisement by another psychologist.

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18
Q

Findings of Zimbardo’s prison study

A

Guards harassed prisoners and become progressively aggressive, everyone conformed and were submerged to their roles even Zimbardo, guards pitted prisoners against each other

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19
Q

Conclusion of Zimbardo’s prison study

A

The nature of a situation has a powerful influence on human behaviour and conformity

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20
Q

Strengths of Zimbardo’s prison study

A

Contributed to the recognition of ethical guidelines and prison policies. High external validity as we have seen it repeated in many contexts e.g. Abu Ghraib Detention Center, the Holocaust.

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21
Q

Weaknesses of Zimbardo’s prison study

A

Biased sample, unethical, low internal reliability (Reicher and Halsam), doesn’t account for demand characteristics (Banuaziz and Movahedi)

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22
Q

Reicher and Halsam 2006

A

Replicated Zimbardo’s study on TV, prisoners took control, harassing the guards when they disobeyed. Researchers attributed it to Social Identity Theory stating that prisoners gained power due to developing a shared social identity.

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23
Q

Banuaziz and Movahedi 1975

A

Believed that Zimbardo’s study was invalid as guards and prisoners were acting as their idea of their roles due to investigator effect

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24
Q

Aspects of Ethics to consider

A

Consent, right to withdraw, protection from harm, confidentiality, deception, privacy

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25
Q

What’s the difference between confidentiality and privacy?

A

Confidentiality prevents the disclosing of private information while privacy is the act of observing someone in a private space or in public without their knowledge or consent

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26
Q

Aim of Milgram’s study

A

To find the extent of obedience if it meant harming another person. Inspired after hearing Nuremberg trials.

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27
Q

Procedure of Milgram’s study

A

Pair participant (teacher) with confederate (learner), Participant in separate room from confederate with ‘researcher’. Participant asks confederate to recall words, confederate answers incorrectly, participant ‘administers’ shocks 15V-450V progressively. Varied with proximity, location and uniform

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28
Q

Findings of Milgram’s study

A

65% continued to 450V, all participants continued to 300V. Teacher + learner same room = 40% obey, teacher manually delivers shock = 30% obey, researcher instructs on telephone = 20% obey, in run down building = 48% obey, ordinary person gives orders = 20% obey

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29
Q

Agentic State

A

When an individual feels no responsibility for behaviour as they believe they are acting for an authority figure. Supported by Milgram’s study but doesn’t account for cases of disobedience

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30
Q

Conclusion of Milgram’s study

A

People have an autonomous and agentic state.

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31
Q

Binding factors

A

Aspects of a situation that allow people to ignore the damaging effect of their behaviour

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32
Q

Agentic shift

A

Process of activating the agentic state from the autonomous state once identifying an authority figure in the social hierarchy

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33
Q

Autonomous state

A

Person is independent and feels responsible for their own actions

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34
Q

Legitimacy of Authority

A

People are likely to obey people who they perceive have authority over them justified by their position of power within the social hierarchy

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35
Q

Destructive authority

A

Compliance with authority resulting in negative outcomes

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36
Q

Strengths of Milgram’s study

A

Explains phenomenons of obedience under destructive authority e.g. Nazi regime, high internal validity

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37
Q

Weaknesses of Milgram’s study

A

Unethical, sample doesn’t represent population, confederates acting as researchers often deferred from the given probes so low reliability

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38
Q

Research backing of Milgram’s study

A

Bickman (1974) asks passers-by to do tasks in different clothes/uniforms. Supports that people obey more to uniforms.
Miranda et al. (1981) 90% obedience in Spanish students = cross-culturally valid

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39
Q

Evidence of social-psychological explanations of obedience (agentic state; legitimacy of authority)

A

Blass and Schmitt (2001) shows Milgram’s to students who identify the experimentor as the blame/authority
My Lai Massacre - Lt. William Calley orders platoon to systematically murder 500 non-combatants during Vietnam war. In trial, his defense was that he was following orders of his superior.

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40
Q

Adorno et al.

A

1950, investigated causes of obedient personality; 2000+ middle class, white Americans fill out F-scale. Found that people with high scores had an authoritarian personality - more obedient to strong figures, condemns ‘weak’, black and white views.

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41
Q

F scale

A

Facist scale. Questionnaire to identify unconscious attitudes towards other racial groups and authoritarian personality

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42
Q

Reasons that people may develop an authoritarian personality

A

Strict parenting with high standards, expectation of loyalty, criticism of failings and love only received on the basis of behaviour

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43
Q

Authoritarian personality

A

Far right ideology, upholds traditional values, believes people are either strong or weak and respects those of high status, fixed stereotypes about minorities and often uses them as scapegoat for their unexpressed feelings

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44
Q

Dispositional explanation meaning

A

Explanation that considers individual’s personality rather than situational influences in environment

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45
Q

Strengths of dispositional explanation/authoritarian personality

A

Research backing - Elms & Milgram (1966) show that authoritarian participants are more likely to obey in the Milgram

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46
Q

Weaknesses of dispositional explanation/authoritarian personality

A

Milgram’s variations show that it was more situational than dispositional, biased sample used in Adorno et al. Alternative explanations = situational/legitimacy of authority

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47
Q

Cultural relativism

A

Behaviour cannot be judged properly until viewed in the context of its original culture

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48
Q

Statistical infrequency

A

Conditions which are rare compared to the norm. Based on normal frequency distribution/bell curve to define abnormality. Does not identify between desirable and undesirable traits. Can only diagnose abnormality if ability to function is considered.

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49
Q

Abnormality

A

Behaviours that are extremely rare. However, the line between normality and abnormality is subjective by everyone’s standards.

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50
Q

Deviation from social norms

A

Deviation from societal rules which can define abnormality. However, social norms can change over time and contexts. Damaging effect must also be considered.

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51
Q

Failure to function adequately

A

Failing to cope with everyday living causing stress for the individual and/or others around them.

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52
Q

Jahoda (1958)

A

Defined deviation from ideal mental health. Included self-attitudes (self-esteem), personal growth, integration (coping w stress), autonomy, accurate perception of reality and mastery of environment (adapting and functioning)

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53
Q

Evaluation of Jahoda (1958)

A

Unrealistic criteria (many do not meet criteria) so not useful and criteria does not apply across other cultures e.g. autonomy is more important for individualistic cultures but not collectivist.

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54
Q

What two factors lead to resistance to social influence?

A

Social support and internal locus of control

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55
Q

How does social support lead to resistance to social influence?

A

Breaking unanimity shows it’s possible to break influence and acts as a model. Asch supports - 80% reduction of conformity if 1 non-conforming person introduced. Milgram supports - 2 other teachers disobey then 10% go to 450V

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56
Q

Locus of control

A

The perception of what we believe directs events in our lives

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57
Q

Internal locus of control

A

Believing that you are in control over what happens to you. More likely to feel responsible and independent. Are less likely to rely on others and can resist pressure from others.

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58
Q

External locus of control

A

Believing that external factors have control over what happens to you. More passive and fatalistic attitude. More likely to be influenced by others.

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59
Q

Depression

A

Mood disorder which individual feels sad/lacks interest in activities. May include irrational negative thoughts, extremes of activity levels, sleep and eating. Can be major or persistent (long term or recurring). May be paired with mania in bipolar disorder.

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60
Q

OCD

A

Anxiety disorder stemming from obsessions (persistent thoughts) and compulsions (repeated behaviours). Compulsions are a response to obsessions to relieve anxiety. Typically begins in young adulthood.

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61
Q

Phobias

A

Group of mental disorders with high anxiety in response to stimulus. Anxiety interferes with normal living.

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62
Q

Behavioural characteristics of phobias

A

Responds to feared stimulus by avoidance. Stress response is fight, flight or freeze. Causes distress and may interfere with daily life

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63
Q

Emotional characteristics of phobias

A

Unreasonable, persistant and excessive fear/panic in presence or anticipation to stimulus

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64
Q

Cognitive characteristics of phobias

A

Irrational thinking, resistance to rational arguments although person recognises that their fear is unreasonable (children may not realise this)

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65
Q

Behavioural characteristics of depression

A

Increased or reduced activity levels of sleep, eating or interest in normal activities

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66
Q

Emotional characteristics of depression

A

Sadness, feeling worthless, low self esteem, lack of interest and control, anger at others or self

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67
Q

Cognitive characteristics of depression

A

Negative emotions associated with irrational negative thoughts e.g. low self-esteem, guilt and pessimistic view of world.

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68
Q

Behavioural characteristics of OCD

A

Compulsive behaviours reduce anxiety, may be overt (handwashing) or covert (praying). Failure to carry out compulsive behaviour leads to more anxiety.

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69
Q

Emotional characteristics of OCD

A

Can cause anxiety, distress, embarrassment, shame

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70
Q

Cognitive characteristics of OCD

A

Obsessions recurrent and intrusive. Individual may recognise as irrational at some point

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71
Q

How does minority influence occur?

A

Via conversion process, people want to understand why the minority is different. When conforming, people will usually internalise minority ideas rather than comply.

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72
Q

What qualities must minority influence have to successfully change social norms?

A

Consistency in ideology (all saying same thing or saying same thing over long period), commitment (what costs they pay), flexibility (must negotiate position with majority rather than enforce)

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73
Q

Rotter

A

1982, study using questionnaire to identify types of locus of control, criticised that locus of control can only be used to explain specific situations

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74
Q

Behaviourist

A

Believes human behaviour can be explained by conditioning without considering thoughts or feelings

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75
Q

Two-process theory model

A

Proposed by Mowrer 1947. Believes there are 2 processes leading to development of phobias. Initiated by classical conditioning. Maintained by operant conditioning.

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76
Q

How does the two-process theory model believe that classical conditioning initiates phobias?

A

Fear becomes conditioned response to conditioned stimulus after neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus is repeated or occurs in a significant event

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77
Q

How does the two-process theory model believe that operant conditioning initiates phobias?

A

Escape from phobic stimulus reduces fear and is negatively reinforcing. Avoidance of phobic averting anxiety is positive reinforcement

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78
Q

Social learning theory applied to phobias

A

Acquiring phobia from observing a significant model’s behaviour. Backed by Bandura and Rosenthal (1966) where participants acquired fear of buzzer after model acted in pain when buzzer sounded.

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79
Q

Strengths of two-process theory model

A

Helps us understand phobias more, backed by Sue et al where phobics recalled phobia developing after specific incident

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80
Q

Limitations of two-process theory model

A

Diathesis-stress model suggests vulnerability to phobia is inherited and triggered by event. Alternative explanations (SLT), ignores cognitive factors e.g. irrational thinking. Animals genetically programmed to fear certain stimuli.

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81
Q

6 steps to social change

A

Drawing attention, consistency, deeper processing (question status quo), the augmentation principle (extreme behaviours to challenge issue and show commitment), snowball effect (switch from minority to majority), social crypto-amnesia (people don’t remember how change occured)

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82
Q

Moscovici (1969) Aims

A

To study minority influence and draw out its main processes

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83
Q

Moscovici (1969) Procedure

A

172 females sorted into groups of 6 people including 2 confederates shown 36 blue coloured slides in varying intensity. Participants identified if it was green or blue. Confederates said slides were green 2/3 of trials. Variations where minority inconsistent, wrote answers down and control group with no confederates.

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84
Q

Moscovici (1969) Findings

A

8% agree with confederates overall. 32% agree with confederates at least once. Minority inconsistent = 1% agree. Answers written down = higher agreement with minority. Control group = 0.25% wrong.

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85
Q

Moscovici (1969) Conclusions

A

Steps to minority: consistency, commitment, flexibility, process of change

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85
Q

Limitations of Moscovici (1969)

A

Artifical environment = low external validity. Does not account the nuances and dynamics between the minorities and majorities of real life (e.g. majority usually has power).

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86
Q

Strengths of Moscovici (1969)

A

Research backing. Wood et al. (1994) meta analysis shows consistency is a major factor determining minority influence

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87
Q

Flooding

A

Treats phobia by exposing client to extreme contact with stimulus until anxiety reaction is extinguished as fear response has time limit and brain makes new association of safety with stimulus. Lasts 2-3 hrs. Can be in vivo (real) or virtual reality.

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88
Q

Systematic desensitisation (SD)

A

Changes behaviour towards stimulus by outlining hierarchy of introduction to stimulus (desensitisation hierarchy), learning a new association that counters CR of fear (counterconditioning) and relaxation techniques at every step of the desensitisation hierarchy until the most extreme contact with the stimulus with relaxation is achieved

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89
Q

Wolpe (1958)

A

Found that relaxation inhibits anxiety (reciprocal inhibition) and used this to develop counterconditioning to treat phobias (replacing CR of fear with relaxation)

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90
Q

Strengths of systematic desensitisation

A

75% effective across patients. In vivo techniques more effective. Easier than CBT. Relatively fast and effortless. Can be self-administered which is cheap.

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91
Q

Limitation of systematic desensitisation

A

Not appropriate for all phobias. For example, it may not be effective in phobias related to biological preparedness. May wear off after therapy

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92
Q

Limitation of flooding

A

Not for every patient, some may quit during flooding. Effect may wear off after therapy. Underlying anxiety problems may not be fixed.

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93
Q

Strength of flooding

A

Quicker and may be more effective than SD (Choy et al.) however some studies suggest they are equally effective

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94
Q

Beck’s negative triad

A

1967, depression follows negative thinking with sense of lack of control. Negative schema from childhood activated. They maintain negative triad: the self, the world, the future

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95
Q

Ellis’ ABC model

A

1962, depression lies whether beliefs are rational. A = activating event, B = rational or irrational belief, C = rational becomes healthy emotions, irrational becomes unhealthy leading to depression

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96
Q

Musturbatory thinking in Ellis’ ABC model

A

Source of irrational beliefs. Important rational beliefs: I must be approved by others, my worth is based on achievement, I must receive happiness from the world.

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97
Q

Strengths of Beck’s negative triad and Ellis’ ABC model

A

Research backing (Hammen and Krantz 1976) show depressed individuals made more errors in logic. Applied in CBT to change thinking - effective especially when paired with medication.

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98
Q

Limitations of Beck’s negative triad and Ellis’ ABC model

A

Blames patient, ignoring situational factors (e.g. stressful environment) and biological factors (e.g. biological vulnerability to depression)

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99
Q

Attachment

A

Two-way emotional bond where each individual sees the other as crucial for emotional stability.

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100
Q

Reciprocity

A

When caregiver and infant respond to each other’s signals and a response elicits another response. Supported by Feldman and Eidelman (2007) and Brazleman et al (1975)

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101
Q

Interactional Synchrony

A

When caregiver and infant mirror actions and emotions in a co-ordinated way. Supported by Meltzoff and Moore (1977) and Isabella et al. (1989)

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102
Q

Feldman and Eidelman

A

2007, found babies have an alert phase and look for interaction. Caregiver notices 2/3 of the time.

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103
Q

Meltzoff and Moore

A

1977, caregiver’s facial expression correlated with actions of baby

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104
Q

Isabella et al

A

1989, found that high synchrony between caregiver and baby leads to better quality attachment

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105
Q

Caregiver-Infant Interaction strengths

A

Research backing + research in labs = high internal validity. Used to inform parents on how to raise children properly and form a healthy attachment.

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106
Q

Brazleman et al

A

1975 baby takes active role in carer-baby relationship by initiating responses.

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107
Q

Caregiver-Infant Interaction limitations

A

Research only refers to mothers ignoring the baby and other types of caregivers. Babies thoughts are inferred. Observations do not define cause and effect.

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108
Q

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

A

1962, changes maladaptive (unhelpful) and irrational thoughts with cognitive therapy followed by change in behaviour to test and cement change in belief (behavioural therapy) via assignment of ‘homework’. Therapist must be non-judgemental as clients are sensitive to criticism.

109
Q

Ellis ABCDEF model in REBT (rational emotional behavioural therapy)

A

D: disputing irrational thoughts, E: effects of disputing and rationalising, F: feelings that are produced

110
Q

Methods of disputing irrational thoughts in REBT

A

Logical disputing - disconnecting belief from ‘following’ event, empirical disputing - showing evidence, pragmatic disputing - pointlessness of self-defeating beliefs

111
Q

Behavioural activation

A

Belief that being active and engaging in pleasurable activities leads to rewards which are an antidote to depression

112
Q

Strengths of CBT

A

90% success rate after 27 sessions (Ellis 1957), Cuijpers et al (2013) finds CBT is better than no treatment and most effective with drugs. Babyak et al (2000) shows exercise as treatment leads to lower relapse rates than treatment of drugs.

113
Q

Limitations of CBT

A

Doesn’t suit everyone; some are more resistant to change or experience realistic stressors. Rosenzweig argued that talking to a sympathetic person was enough to effect the client and not the techniques of CBT.

114
Q

Grossman

A

2002, longitudinal observation suggests that father’s play with infants was related to quality of teen attachment suggesting fathers have a role of stimulation and play in attachment.

115
Q

Field

A

1978, filmed 4 month old babies interaction. Suggests that key to attachment is due to level of responsiveness and not gender as primary caregivers spent more time smiling and imitating than secondary caregivers.

116
Q

Schaffer and Emerson

A

1964, Participants skilled working class backgrounds from Glasgow. Babies and mothers visited in homes every month for first year and again at 18 months. Measured separation anxiety. 97% of babies became attached to mother first at 7 months. in 27% the father was the joint first attachment. 75% of babies form attachment to father by 18 months

117
Q

Genes that are implicated in OCD

A

COMT and SERT gene

118
Q

COMT gene

A

Regulates dopamine. Lower activity of gene can result in high dopamine.

119
Q

SERT gene

A

Affects transport of serotonin. Low activity means less serotonin.

120
Q

Diathesis-stress Model

A

Individual genes create vulnerability to mental disorder. Individual only suffers if the mental disorder if activated by environmental stressors

121
Q

Neural explanations for OCD

A

Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters (serotonin and dopamine), abnormal frontal lobe/circuit; orbitofrontal cortex sends ‘worry’ signals which are not suppressed by damaged caudate nucleus so thalamus is constantly alert creating anxiety.

122
Q

Strength of genetic and neural explanations for OCD

A

Research backing - Ozaki et al (2003) mutation of SERT gene present in 2 unrelated families: 6/7 had OCD. Szechtman et al. (1998) found dopamine enhancing drugs resulted in animals resembling behaviours of OCD. Nestadt et al (2000) first degree relatives of someone with OCD 5x risk of developing OCD

123
Q

Limitations of genetic and neural explanations for OCD

A

No gene is directly responsible for OCD. Often paired with autism, depression and tourettes. Pauls and Leckman (1986) believe that OCD is one expression of the same gene for tourettes. Alternative explanations - two-process model. Additionally, exposure therapy is 90% effective.

124
Q

Strengths of Schaffer and Emerson (1964)

A

Natural environment = high external validity. Regular intervals during 1st year = internal reliability. Can be applied to advise parental leave.

125
Q

Limitations of Schaffer and Emerson (1964)

A

Generalisation - working class + scottish. Only focuses on mothers, ignores different family types. Increases support for parental leave which may have economic implications. Purely observational = low internal validity.

126
Q

Limitation of longitudinal studies involving infants

A

High attrition rates, many drop out as they later withdraw their consent from the study.

127
Q

McCallum and Golombok

A

Found that children do not develop differently in lesbian/same sex families.

128
Q

Separation anxiety

A

Distress shown by infant when separated from their caregiver. Indicates formation of attachment.

129
Q

Stranger anxiety

A

Distress shown by infant when approached or picked up by unfamiliar figure.

130
Q

Antidepressants: SSRIs (Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors) e.g. Prozac

A

Works for both OCD and depression. Normalises ‘worry circuit’. Preferred drug for treating anxiety disorders. Increases amount of serotonin therefore regulating mood and anxiety.

131
Q

Antidepressants: Tricyclics

A

Used in OCD rather than depression. Blocks reabsorption of serotonin and noradrenaline (regulates flight or flight/anxiety) to increase activity.

132
Q

Evaluation of Tricyclics

A

May cause hallucinations therefore used as a second-line treatment after SSRIs

133
Q

Evaluation of SSRIs

A

Causes side effect of nausea, headaches and insomnia

134
Q

Benzodiazepines (BZs)

A

Enhances activity of GABA which is a neurotransmitter that regulates excitement in nervous system to reduce anxiety.

135
Q

Strengths of drug treatment for OCD

A

Effective (Soomro et al 2008 found them to be more effective than placebos). Cheaper (for example, prescription ~£10 while CBT minimum £60 per session over recommended 27), takes less effort and monitoring.

136
Q

Limitations of drug treatment for OCD

A

Many side effects which may outweigh the benefits of treatment. Research for effectiveness has little long term data. Higher chances of relapse (doesn’t deal with root cause). Develops dependency on drugs. Koran et al (2007) suggests drug treatment AFTER CBT has been tried.

137
Q

Evaluation of Benzodiazepines

A

Possibly addictive, increased aggressiveness, long term impairment of memory.

138
Q

Schaffer and Emerson’s stages of attachment

A

1 - Asocial attachment, 2 - Indiscriminate attachment, 3 - Specific attachment, 4 - Multiple attachments

139
Q

Stage one: Asocial attachment

A

From birth to 2 months, similar response to all objects but shows preference for people. May start to establish reciprocity and synchrony to form later attachment.

140
Q

Stage two: Indiscriminate attachment

A

From 2-7 months, clear preference for people and can recognise familiar people. Will accept comfort from anyone. No stranger or separation anxiety.

141
Q

Stage three: Specific attachment

A

From 7-8 months, stranger and separation anxiety present. Has formed attachment with primary caregiver who responds to baby with most skill, not who spends more time.

142
Q

Stage four: Multiple attachments

A

From 8 months onwards, extends attachments to secondary caregivers who spend more time with infant. Multiple attachments developed by 1 year.

143
Q

Lorenz (1952) Aim

A

To investigate the mechanism of imprinting (forming an attachment to the first moving object seen)

144
Q

Lorenz (1952) Procedure

A

Took goose eggs - half under mother goose and half in incubator under Lorenz.

145
Q

Lorenz (1952) Findings

A

Geese in each group followed the first moving object at birth and considered them their mother. When Lorenz put geese in box and allowed them to mix. When released, they returned to the parent they were raised under. Found critical period of imprinting - depending on species, few hours after birth

146
Q

Lorenz (1952) Conclusion

A

Study suggests attachment is innate, imprinting cannot be reversed and cannot apply to multiple figures and attachment is formed under a specific time frame.

147
Q

Lorenz (1952) Strengths

A

Provides useful insight into attachment where humans cannot be used due to ethical issues. Field experiment = high external validity

148
Q

Lorenz (1952) Weaknesses

A

Field experiment = low internal validity. Using animals in studies can be argued to be unethical as they cannot consent. May not apply to humans as geese do not share the same emotional connections therefore it has no practical use.

149
Q

Harlow (1958) Aim

A

To find the foundation of the bond between newborns and their mothers in monkeys, testing if attachment was based on nutrition.

150
Q

Harlow (1958) Procedure

A

16 monkeys, 4 in each condition - wire mother and cloth mother with milk, wire mother with milk and cloth mother, wire mother only, cloth mother only. Isolated in varying degrees up to 1 year. Later observed with monkeys who grew up in a social environment with their biological mother. Further experiment gave monkeys surrogate mothers but 20 mins daily socialisation with other monkeys.

151
Q

Harlow (1958) Findings

A

Monkeys with both mother preferred cloth mother. Monkeys with wire mother suffered diarrhoea indicating stress. Monkeys with cloth mother able to feel safe to interact with toys. Out of isolation, monkeys isolated 90 days+ timid, bullied and aggressive, under 90 days, damage reversible. Monkeys who had surrogate but everyday socialisation grew up normally.

152
Q

Harlow (1958) Conclusion

A

Isolation and lack of attachment is permanently damaging to monkey. Abnormal behaviour correlates with length of isolation. Attachment based on comfort rather than nutrition. Not forming an attachment in critical period was irreversible.

153
Q

Harlow (1958) Strengths

A

Lab experiment = high internal validity. Helps social workers understand effects of child neglect. High internal reliability, each condition consistent.

154
Q

Harlow (1958) Weaknesses

A

Lab experiment = low ext validity. Low generalisability as monkeys used. Study permanently damaging to monkeys + did not consent.

155
Q

Long Term Memory

A

Memory for past events. Potentially unlimited capacity. Coded semantically (with meaning). Stores memory for 2 minutes - 100 years. Info goes back to STM in retrieval. Forgetting occurs when memory can’t be located in LTM.

156
Q

Short Term Memory

A

Memory for immediate events. Capacity of up to 7 chunks. Info displaced by new info. Coded acoustically. Measured in seconds and minutes. Very limited duration, info decays if not rehearsed. Enters LTM via (maintenance) rehearsal. Forgetting occurs when info does not enter LTM.

157
Q

Coding meaning memory

A

The senses used to store a memory/information.

158
Q

Digit span technique

A

Random order of digits given to participants. Participants asked to recall them in order or reverse order.

159
Q

Jacobs (STM)

A

1887 Found the span for digits was 9 items and 7 for letters using digit span technique. Proposed that digits could be remembered more easily as there are less digits than there are letters. Found capacity increases with age - 8 yr olds can recall 7, 19 yr olds can recall 9

160
Q

Miller (STM)

A

1956 Reviewed research on memory and concluded the span was 7±2. Proposed capacity could be increased by chunking information.

161
Q

Cowan’s (STM)

A

2001, Suggests capacity of short term memory was 4 chunks as opposed to Miller (1956). Research backing by Vogel et al (2001)

162
Q

Simon (STM)

A

1974 found people had shorter memory for larger chunks than for smaller chunks e.g. eight word phrases than one syllable words.

163
Q

Evaluation of research on the Short Term Memory capacity

A

Conflicting results (low external reliability). Capacity is up to individual differences (Jacobs 1887) and size of chunks (Simon 1974)

164
Q

Peterson and Peterson (STM)

A

1959 Lab experiment with 24 students and 8 trials. Given 3 digits and 3 consonants. Participants recall consonants after counting back from digit (e.g. 100). Tested over 6 varying intervals. 90% correct after 3 seconds, 20% correct after 9 seconds.

165
Q

Bahrick et al (LTM)

A

1975 Natural experiment tested 400 17-74 years of their memory of classmates from yearbook images. 15 years after graduation had 90% accuracy. After 45 years, 70% accuracy. When recalling names from memory, 15 years after had 60%, 48 years, 30%.

166
Q

Baddeley coding study

A

1966, lab experiment gave participants words which were acoustically or semantically similar and dissimilar. STM tested immediately, LTM tested after 20 mins. In STM, it was easier to remember the semantic words but in LTM it was easier to remember similar sounding words. Concluded that STM coded acoustically, LTM coded semantically.

167
Q

Evaluation of Bahrick et al. (1975)

A

Extraneous variables - some classmates may have kept in touch more than others

168
Q

Evaluation of Peterson and Peterson (1959)

A

Counting task may have increased forgetfulness rather than reveal the actual duration of the STM. Reitman (1974) used auditory distractions and found that STM longer. Nonsense consonants = may not be used IRL but we often find ourselves memorising things such as postcodes and phone numbers so somewhat useful.

169
Q

Dollard and Miller (1950)

A

Introduced drive reduction theory. Explained attachment by operant conditioning involving food rather than emotion. Positive reinforcement of food reduces drive of hunger.

170
Q

Operant conditioning explanation of attachment

A

Crying positively enforced by baby as it receives reward (food/comfort) when it cries. Two way process, mutual enforcement. Caregiver keeps repeating desired behaviour to avoid punishment of crying (negative reinforcement).

171
Q

Sears et al (1957)

A

As hunger is a primary drive and the caregiver provides food, attachment can be considered a secondary drive.

172
Q

Classical conditioning and attachment

A

Baby associates mother with happiness and food as mother is repeatedly paired with food which naturally causes happiness

173
Q

Limitations of Baddeley (1966)

A

20 minutes may not be a suitable measurement for the LTM. Many studies have linked coding of STM and LTM to also be visual (Bandimonte et al 1992 and Frost 1972) and Nelson and Rothbart (1972) found evidence of acoustic coding for LTM

174
Q

Multi-store Model

A

Explanation of memory with 3 stores: Sensory memory, Short Term Memory, Long Term Memory. Proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)

175
Q

Sensory memory/register

A

Coded via senses, large capacity, very short duration. Holds all senses. Info goes to short term memory when paid attention to.

175
Q

Strengths of Multi-store Model

A

Lab studies into capacity, duration and coding support different stores with different characteristics. Brain imaging shows different areas for when different stores used - prefrontal cortex used during STM tasks but not LTM.

175
Q

Scoville and Milner

A

1957 Case of H.M - had operation to reduce severe epilepsy removing hippocampus from both sides of brain. Couldn’t form new LTM but recalled memory before surgery perfectly.

175
Q

Limitations of Multi-store Model

A

Model is too simple and doesn’t consider that the stores have subsections. Suggestion that STM comes before LTM may be false as interpreting info from STM with attention needs LTM understanding as a basis. Craik and Lockhart (1972) argue that elaborate rehearsal (giving meaning) is a way of storing info in the LTM besides maintenance rehearsal

176
Q

What behaviours did Ainsworth and Bell (1970) look for?

A

Proximity-seeking, secure-base behaviour/exploration, stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, response to reunion

177
Q

Secure-base behaviour

A

How much child checks with carer how to act with something new and how safe/confident they feel to explore environment

178
Q

Proximity Seeking (Attachment)

A

Baby’s desire to stay close with care-giver. Indication of good quality attachment.

179
Q

Response to reunion (Attachment)

A

Baby greets carer’s return with pleasure and starts to seek comfort. Indication of secure attachment.

180
Q

Ainsworth and Bell (1970) Aim

A

To observe attachment behaviours by introducing a baby to a mildly stressful situation to assess quality of attachment.

181
Q

Ainsworth and Bell (1970) Procedure

A

Controlled observation in lab using two-way mirror or cameras. Had 7 episodes of actions which each lasted 3 minutes showing carer leaving, stranger entering and carer returning. 100 infants observed.

182
Q

Ainsworth and Bell (1970) Findings

A

70% of babies showed moderate separation and stranger anxiety but calmed easily by reunion (Secure). 15% showed secure-base behaviour but little separation and stranger anxiety (Insecure-avoidant). 15% Showed high proximity seeking, low secure base and high stranger and separation anxiety but didn’t calm after reunion (Insecure-resistant)

183
Q

Ainsworth and Bell (1970) Conclusions

A

Most babies have a secure attachment to their mothers. Highlights role of mother’s behaviour in outcome of attachment.

184
Q

Strengths of Ainsworth and Bell (1970)

A

Practical application to how baby will develop and their mental health in adulthood. Research support (Bick et al 2012) trained observers had 94% agreement on identifying babies attachment types so good inter-rater reliability

185
Q

Limitations of Ainsworth and Bell (1970)

A

Alternate suggestions - Kagan (1982), Main and Solomon (1986). Not cross-cultural -Takahashi (1986). Unethical. Deterministic.

186
Q

Bowlby’s theories

A

Monotropic theory, social releasers and the critical period, internal working model

187
Q

Bowlby - Monotropy

A

Believed there was a primary attachment figure which was different and more important. Allocated this role to mother. Better attachment based on time spent.

188
Q

Bowlby - Social releasers and the critical period

A

Babies born with innate behaviours to encourage attention and attachment e.g. cooing, grabbing which are social releasers. Proposed critical period (from 6 months to 2 and a half years) where attachment system develops. Child will find it harder to develop attachments after critical period.

189
Q

Bowlby - Internal working model

A

Child forms template of all relationships based on primary attachment figure (internal working model). Expects and treats others based on what caregiver gave them

190
Q

Kagan

A

1982, suggests anxiety is genetically influenced and accounts for different attachments.

191
Q

Main and Solomon

A

1986, suggests type D which is a mix of resistant and avoidant and suffer more abuse and more vulnerable to disorders

192
Q

Takahashi

A

1986, Japanese babies disproportionately categorised as insecure-resistant

193
Q

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) Aims

A

To investigate attachment styles across cultures - whether attachment is universal or culturally specific.

194
Q

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) Procedure

A

Used meta analysis on replications of Ainsworth’s Strange Situation (1970) over 8 different countries including 32 samples of data. Analysed attachment style frequencies. All studies only included mother-infant pairs.

195
Q

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) Findings

A

Secure attachment type majority in all countries 50-75% common. Amount of secure attachment - highest in Britain, lowest in China. Individualist countries = more insecure avoidant than resistant (highest - Germany), collectivist countries = more insecure resistant than avoidant (highest - Japan). USA highest range of secure attachment in studies (46-90%)

196
Q

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) Conclusions

A

Secure attachment common supports Bowlby idea that attachment is innate and universal and that secure attachment = healthiest and optimal attachment. Variations in the majority insecure attachment suggest that cultural environment can make changes in attachment. Germany = high avoidant due to wanting to avoid obedience after WW2.

197
Q

Simonella et al

A

2014, investigated if Italian attachment followed the same findings as Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988). Used strange situation with 76 12-month-olds. 50% secure, 36% avoidant, 14% resistant. Lower secure attachments than most in VI&K. Suggested attachments changed due to shift to working mothers. Shows cultural changes affecting attachment.

198
Q

Jin et al

A

2012, investigated attachment in Korea compared to other countries. Used strange situation on 87 infants. Secure attachment dominant but more resistant than avoidant insecure (similar to Japan). Supports Bowlby (innate & universal secure) and cultural influence on attachment.

199
Q

Working Memory Model

A

Explanation of STM by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) expanding upon MSM which they criticised to be too simplistic. Memory used when working on tasks. Split into Episodic Buffer -> Central Executive -> Phonological Loop OR Visuo-spacial Sketch Pad.

200
Q

Episodic Buffer

A

Receives input from receptors (both visual and acoustic) and acts as a temporary store. Sorted by the Central Executive. Sends info to LTM. Has limited capacity.

201
Q

Central Executive

A

Coordinates mental functions by organising the data received from the Episodic Buffer and sends them to slave systems (phonological loop or visuo-spacial sketchpad). Has a very limited capacity. Unable to store data.

202
Q

Phonological Loop

A

Deals with auditory data and preserves order of hearing. Split into phonological store (stores info in order) and articulatory process (maintenance rehearsal via inner voice) Limited capacity.

203
Q

Visuo-spacial Sketch Pad

A

Deals with visual data and preserves spacial info. Split into visual cache (stores info about colour, form, ect.) and inner scribe (maps out how objects are placed in relation to each other e.g. “stairs around this corner”). Limited capacity.

204
Q

Rutter’s Romanian Orphan Studies Procedure

A

2011, group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain. Tested if good care could cover damage of poor institutions. Assessed ages 4,6,11,15. Group of adopted British children served as control group.

205
Q

Rutter’s Romanian Orphan Studies Findings

A

2011, rates of recovery and IQ inversely proportional to age of adoption. Differences remained at 16. Concluded new attachment style: Disorganised Attachment Style including attention seeking, no stranger anxiety and disinhibited attachment. Studies could be reversed if adopted before 6 months of institutionalisation

206
Q

Zeanah et al Findings

A

2005, 74% of control group secure attachment, less than 20% disinhibited attachments. 19% of institutionalised children secure attachment, 65% had disorganised attachment, 44% has disinhibited attachment.

207
Q

Disorganised attachment

A

Inconsistent patterns of behaviour, sometimes strong attachment, sometimes avoidant

208
Q

Zeanah et al Procedure

A

2005, 95 aged 12-31 months who spent 90% of their lives in institutionalisation compared to 50 children without institutionalisation. Measured using strange situation and asked about attention-seeking behaviour.

209
Q

Disinhibited attachment

A

Proposed by Rutter as an adaptation to multiple caregivers, no stranger anxiety, stuck in indiscriminate attachment stage as no-one fit to form specific, secure attachment

210
Q

Cause of increase in institutionalised Romanian orphans

A

All women required to have 5 children in 1990s but they couldn’t afford to keep them.

211
Q

Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis

A

When deprivation occurs via extended periods of separation where emotional care is not received during the critical period, the child’s intellectual, emotional and social development may be affected. Lack of emotional development was identified as ‘affectionless psychopathy’ and behaviour outside social norms was called ‘delinquency’

212
Q

Bowlby’s 44 Juvenile Thieves Study Aim

A

1944, to test maternal deprivation hypothesis with delinquents

213
Q

Bowlby’s 44 Juvenile Thieves Study Procedure

A

1944, from a delinquency centre, 44 thieves compared with 44 non-thieves using interviews and questionnaires

214
Q

Bowlby’s 44 Juvenile Thieves Study Findings

A

1944, 17 thieves had deprivation before 5 years - 15/17 affectionless psychopaths. 2 non-thieves had deprivation. Later research found 60 children who were separated from their mothers due to tuberculosis under 4 had lower academic achievement.

215
Q

Bowlby’s 44 Juvenile Thieves Study Conclusions

A

Disrupted attachments in early life correlated with crime, disrupted emotional development and low academic achievement. Supports maternal deprivation hypothesis.

216
Q

Working Memory Model Strengths

A

Phonological loop supported - people recall shorter words easier than longer words. Shallice and Warrington (1970) investigated KF who was more forgetful for auditory than visual info after brain damage suggesting separate stores.

217
Q

Working Memory Model Limitations

A

Central executive is too vague - Eslinger and Damasio (1985) investigated EVR who had a brain tumour removed. Could do reasoning tasks but not decision making suggesting separate stores for the central executive. Furthermore, case studies including brain damage fail to consider trauma of injury may be affecting memory instead.

218
Q

Types of LTM

A

Explicit (declarative) - Episodic and semantic memory
Implicit (procedural) - Procedural memory

219
Q

Episodic Memory

A

Memories of personal episodes with specific details of event, context and emotion

220
Q

Semantic Memory

A

General knowledge memories about world that many people know. Begins as episodic but loses personality and specificity. Examples: maths, language, function of objects

221
Q

Procedural Memory

A

Automatic actions gained by repetition and practice. Can be performed with little awareness of steps.

222
Q

Support for different types of LTM

A

Hippocampus and frontal lobe active for episodic memory while cerebellum active for procedural memory. HM (after surgery) could form new procedural memories but no episodic memory.

223
Q

Arguments against support for different types of LTM

A

Hodges and Patterson (2007) and Irish et al (2011) both found Alzheimer’s patients had poor semantic memory but good episodic memory suggesting that episodic memories may not come before semantic memory. Studies of brain damaged patients may not consider that parts of brain activity as relay stations of a network attributing functions to the wrong parts of the brain.

224
Q

Proactive interference (+ example)

A

Past learning interferes with new learning
Underwood tested memory of list of words after 24 hours. Ppts only remembered 20% if they were given 10 lists. Ppts remembered 70% if given 1 list. Concluded that words in later lists are remembered less than words encountered earlier.

225
Q

Retroactive interference (+ example)

A

New learning interferes with past learning
Muller and Pilzecker gave ppts 6 mins to learn nonsense syllables and recall after retention interval. Found recall was poor when given a task in retention interval.

226
Q

Interference strengths

A

Much research support from lab experiments. Real world application to advertising as it was found people remember adverts more when they were shown multiple times rather than once paired with a competing advert.

227
Q

Interference limitations

A

Interference does not consider similarity - McGeoch and McDonald’s gave ppts list A and asked to learn list B after then recall list A. If list B were synonyms or numbers, it was remembered better. If list B had nonsense syllables, list A was remembered more. Interference may be temporary instead of permanent - Ceraso found that recall ability after 24 hrs was the same but spontaneous if recognition of items was tested. Some people have a greater working memory and have less proactive interference, depending on individual differences.

228
Q

Limitations of Bowlby’s 44 Thieves Study

A

Pre-selected sample of orphan who lived in poor quality orphanages during World War 2. Used purely observational techniques = low internal validity. Lewis replicated with 500 and concluded that maternal deprivation did not predict crime so low ext reliability. Fails to consider external factors for committing crime e.g. poverty.

229
Q

Strengths of Bowlby’s 44 Thieves Study

A

Practical application for social workers and informing parenting. Maternal deprivation may be correlated but not causational.

230
Q

Cues

A

Things that activate retrieval of a memory. May be due to a meaningful link, an environment or an emotional state

231
Q

Retrieval failure

A

Forgetting due to absent cues. Memory is available but not accessible.

232
Q

Importance of similarity of cues

A

Psychologists gave participants 48 words in 12 categories presented as category-word. People in free recall had 40% recall, people in cued recall with category headings recalled 60%

233
Q

Context-dependent forgetting

A

Godden and Baddeley (1975) scuba divers learn words on land or water and recall in same or different environment. Highest recall when divers recalled in the same conditions they learnt them in

234
Q

Strengths of retrieval failure

A

Research support, application in eyewitness interviews - effective as Smith showed that thinking in room of learning (mental reinstatement) helps retrieval. Better explanation than interference - in free recall vs cued recall with varying amounts of lists, cued recall was always 70%

235
Q

Limitations of retrieval failure

A

Doesn’t explain all instances of forgetting; relationship is correlational, not causal

236
Q

Hodges and Tizard Aims

A

1989, to investigate effect of institutionalisation/privation on later development and if they can be reversed

237
Q

Hodges and Tizard Procedure

A

1989, longitudinal study of 65 children who were in residential nurseries. Taken into care before 6 months old and observed at 4,8,16yrs using interviews and questionnaires. Children either adopted, returned to their families or in institution (with good quality but carers discouraged from forming attachment). Compared to control group

238
Q

Hodges and Tizard Findings

A

1989 At 4, no institutionalised/adopted children formed attachment. Development of adopted better than returned children who had behavioural problems. Institutionalised = attention seeking and attachment disorders and at 8, less empathy and social skills and most instability in later attachment. Adopted had better attachments than control group.

239
Q

Hodges and Tizard Conclusion

A

1989, supports Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory however it is not a definite cause of later effects as they are able to be reversed by care

240
Q

Hodges and Tizard Limitations

A

Used observational techniques = low internal validity and may have been affected by social desirability bias as they were not anonymous. Those with insecure relationships may have dropped out biasing the results - attrition rates 35%

241
Q

Hodges and Tizard Strengths

A

Highlighted problems faced by children in institutions and how children should be looked after.

242
Q

Hazan and Shaver Procedure

A

1989, investigated association between attachment and relationships. 620 answered quiz in American newspaper about current and past relationships and attachment type.

243
Q

Hazan and Shaver Findings

A

1989, 56% were secure and had good, long lasting relationships, 25% avoidant who were jealous and feared intimacy. (19% resistant)

244
Q

Gerard McCarthy

A

1999, studied 40 adult women who were assessed for their attachment style during infancy. Found that securely attached had best relationships, avoidant struggled with intimacy and resistant had problems maintaining relationships

245
Q

Myran-Wilson and Smith

A

1998, assessed attachment and bullying with 196 children 7-11yrs from London. Found that secure attachments were likely to be involved in bullying, avoidant were likely to be bullied, resistant were likely to lead bullying

246
Q

Eyewitness testimony

A

Evidence provided in court by a witness about the perpetrator of the crime. Accuracy of recall of witness may be affected during initial coding, subsequent storage and retrieval.

247
Q

Leading questions

A

Suggests desired answer to witness in wording of a question

248
Q

Misleading information

A

Supplying the witness with information that may alter their memory of the crime and reducing accuracy

249
Q

Post-event discussion

A

Conversation between witness and co-witness or interviewer after crime. Details discussed contaminate memories

250
Q

Loftus and Palmer

A

1974, lab experiment on leading questions. 45 ptcpts watch 7 film clips of car crashes. Asks “how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?” replacing ‘hit’ with other words (smashed, collided, contacted). Group given the word ‘smashed’ described highest speed, and ‘contacted’ gave lowest speed. Shows verb led to certain answer.

251
Q

Loftus and Palmer follow up experiment

A

Introduced control group who received no speed question. Asked all participants one week later “Did you see any broken glass?”, an unbiased question. There was no glass - ‘smashed’ group recalled glass the most. Those who thought car was travelling faster likely to falsely recall broken glass

252
Q

Conformity effect

A

Gabbert et al (2003) showed pairs of participants video of event with different items. One condition - pairs discussed what they recalled. Compared to control group, 71% of witnesses who had discussed falsely recalled items that were in their partner’s video.

253
Q

Disadvantage of contamination of eyewitness testimonies

A

Lab experiment = low external validity, studies shown that elderly people had more difficulty remembering the source of their info than young people = vulnerable to inaccurate EWT. Response may be due to acquiescence bias rather than incorrect memory.

254
Q

Advantage of contamination of eyewitness testimonies

A

Harmful to case therefore practical application allows cases to be shaped to ensure accurate recall of witnesses.

255
Q

Weapon focus

A

Anxiety experienced when in the presence of a weapon distracting from other features of an event. Reduces accuracy of identification of perpetrator

256
Q

Research support for weapon focus

A

Johnson and Scott (1976) participants in waiting room either witness one man run through the waiting room carrying a pen (low anxiety situation) or one man run with a bloody knife (high anxiety situation). Participants asked to identify man from photos. Mean accuracy of low anxiety was 49% and 33% in high anxiety

257
Q

Christiansen and Hubinette

A

1993, interviewed 58 people 4-15 months after bank robbery. Witnesses either bank tellers (directly threatened, high anxiety) or bystanders (low anxiety). All witnesses had above 75% accurate recall however bank tellers had the highest recall. Suggests high anxiety creates stronger memory.

258
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Effect

A

Believes that at high and low anxiety, memory is inaccurate. At medium anxiety, memory is the most accurate. Supported by Deffenbacher, found 10 studies suggesting high anxiety caused accurate memory while 11 showed the opposite.

259
Q

Strength of anxiety affecting EWT

A

Case studies of crimes have high ecological validity.

260
Q

Limitation of anxiety affecting EWT

A

Lab studies wont create the same anxiety experienced in actual crimes. Many conflicting conclusions of studies - may be explained by level of violence experienced Halford and Milne show witnesses of violent crimes recalled more accurately. May be explained by surprise rather than anxiety (Pickel’s study). May be affected by emotional sensitivity rather than anxiety (Bothwell’s study)

261
Q

Pickel’s study

A

Participants who saw a thief at the hairdressers carrying a raw chicken (low threat, high surprise) or handgun (high threat, high surprise) had less accurate recall than those who saw them with scissors (high threat, low surprise) or a wallet (low threat, low surprise)

262
Q

Bothwell’s study

A

Found ‘stable’ personalities (less emotionally sensitive) has increased accuracy of recall compared to ‘neurotic’ personalities (highly emotionally sensitive) who less accurately recalled. Modest effect sizes in anxiety studies may be due to a balance of stable and neurotic personalities.

263
Q

Cognitive Interview

A

Interview technique designed to enhance accuracy of recall by recreating the original context of the crime. Geiselman et al (1984) developed four components: mental reinstatement (provides contextual and emotional cues), report everything (one ‘irrelevant’ detail may lead to recall), change order and change perspective (prevents pre-existing schema from preventing a set recall),

264
Q

Strengths of cognitive interview

A

Meta-analysis of 53 studies showed CI had a 81% increase in accuracy than standard inteview.

265
Q

Limitations of cognitive interview

A

Effectiveness may be limited by only using 1 component; Milne and Bull found that using all components was more accurate than using 1. Along with an 81% increase of accuracy, the CI also has a 61% increase of inaccurate info. CI takes longer than SI and requires special training (therefore police try to limit CI to necessary components)

266
Q

What component of the cognitive interview should be used depending on age?

A

Older witnesses (~72+) are more cautious therefore CI must emphasise recall everything. Mello and Fisher found CI was more advantageous for older participants (mean age 72) than younger participants (mean age 22). For younger participants, mental reinforcement may be used more.

267
Q

What part of the brain is associated with LTM

A

Hippocampus

268
Q

What part of the brain is associated with STM

A

Pre-frontal cortex

Psychology (4 decks)

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