Paper 2 - Section B Mixed Flashcards
4(a)(i) Define the term infant mortality rate (IMR).
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) means how many babies die before their first birthday, out of every 1,000 babies that are born alive in one year.
✔️ It includes:
deaths of babies under 1 year old
only babies that were born alive
out of every 1,000 live births per year
Example definition:
The Infant Mortality Rate is the number of babies who die before age one for every 1,000 live births in a year.
4(a)(ii) Briefly explain why IMR and fertility rate may be related.
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) and fertility rate are linked. When more babies die young, people often have more children. When fewer babies die, people usually have fewer children.
✔️ Key reasons:
Safety backup: In places where many babies die (high IMR), parents have more children just in case some don’t survive.
Support in old age: In poorer countries, parents rely on children to care for them later in life. If many babies die, they have more to make sure some grow up.
Better healthcare = fewer babies: If a country’s healthcare gets better, fewer babies die. Parents then feel safer having fewer children.
Family planning: In places with low IMR, women often have more access to contraception and education, so they choose to have smaller families.
4(b) Using examples, explain why infant mortality rates are high in some countries.
Infant Mortality Rates (IMR) are often high in low-income countries because of problems with healthcare, nutrition, and living conditions.
✔️ Main reasons:
Poor medical care during birth: Many hospitals don’t have enough trained doctors or equipment. In parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, many babies are born at home without help from skilled health workers, which makes birth more risky.
Not enough food: Mothers and babies may not get the food they need to stay strong. In places like Somalia and South Sudan, hunger makes babies more likely to get sick and die.
Dirty water and bad toilets: In countries like Bangladesh and Ethiopia, unsafe water can spread diseases like diarrhea and cholera, which often cause babies to die.
Lots of diseases: Infections like malaria, pneumonia, and HIV/AIDS are common in places like Nigeria and India, and they can be deadly for infants.
Teen pregnancies: In some cultures, girls get married and have babies very young. This can lead to health problems during birth. For example, Niger has many teen pregnancies and a high infant death rate.
Unhealthy mothers and no checkups: In countries like Afghanistan, many pregnant women don’t get health checkups, which means problems during pregnancy or early birth may not be treated in time. This raises the risk for the baby.
5(a) Describe the impacts of urban-rural migration on rural areas.
✅ Positive Effects:
More money for rural areas: When more people move in, they need homes and services. This helps small businesses grow. For example, villages near London in the UK have become richer because of city people moving there.
Better roads and services: As more people move in, governments may improve roads, build more schools, and add hospitals to support the growing population.
Keeping traditions alive: Some people move to the countryside for a peaceful, community-focused life. This helps keep local culture and traditions strong.
❌ Negative Effects:
House prices go up: Wealthy newcomers can afford higher prices, so local people may not be able to buy or rent homes anymore. In Cornwall, UK, many locals struggle with this.
Services get crowded: More people means more pressure on hospitals, schools, and buses, which can make life harder for everyone.
Farmland disappears: To build more houses, farmland is often used up, which can hurt food production.
More traffic and pollution: With more cars on the roads, there’s more traffic and pollution in the countryside.
Tension between locals and newcomers: Sometimes, people who’ve lived in the countryside for a long time feel different from the new arrivals, especially if they have different lifestyles or more money. This can cause problems in the community.
5(b) With the aid of examples, explain the role of pull factors in urban-rural migration.
🧍♂️ Social Pull Factors:
Better lifestyle: People often move to rural areas for peace and quiet. For example, in France, many retired people leave busy cities like Paris for the countryside.
Safer places to live: Cities can have more crime, so families sometimes move to rural areas where it’s safer.
💰 Economic Pull Factors:
Cheaper living: Houses and everyday costs are often lower in the countryside. In the UK, people are moving from expensive cities like London to rural towns to save money.
Work from home: More people can now do their jobs online, so they don’t need to live in the city and can still earn the same salary from rural homes.
🌳 Environmental Pull Factors:
Cleaner air: The countryside usually has less pollution, so people move there for better health.
More outdoor space: Rural areas have nature, farms, forests, and places to hike or fish – perfect for people who enjoy being outdoors.
🏛 Political Pull Factors:
Government support: Some governments try to help rural areas grow by giving rewards like tax cuts to people or businesses that move there.
4(a)(i) Define the term food security.
Food security means that everyone, at all times, has enough food that is safe, healthy, and nutritious to live an active and healthy life.
✔️ It includes:
Having enough food (quantity)
Having safe and healthy food (quality)
Making sure all people have access to it, all the time
Example definition:Food security means people always have enough safe and healthy food to stay strong and live well.
4(a)(ii) Suggest two ways in which food security in a country can be threatened.
🌍 1. Climate change and extreme weather
Bad weather like droughts, floods, and storms can damage crops and reduce the amount of food farmers can grow.
Example: In East Africa, long droughts have made it hard to grow food.
👨👩👧 2. Population growth
When more people are born, more food is needed. If food production doesn’t keep up, there can be shortages.
Example: In countries like India and Nigeria, the growing population makes it harder to feed everyone.
⚔️ 3. War and conflict
Fighting and political problems can stop food from being grown, transported, or sold. This can cause hunger and famine.
Example: In Yemen, war has made it hard for people to get enough food.
💸 4. Economic problems and high food prices
When a country’s economy is weak, or prices go up too much, people can’t afford to buy enough food.
Example: In Venezuela, very high inflation has led to food shortages.
4(b) Using examples, explain the roles of technology and innovation in overcoming food shortages.
Genetically modified (GM) crops – GM crops are designed to be drought-resistant, pest-resistant, and high-yielding, increasing food production.
Example: Golden Rice in Asia is fortified with vitamin A to combat malnutrition.
Irrigation technology – Advanced irrigation systems conserve water while improving crop yields.
Example: Drip irrigation in Israel allows water-efficient farming in arid regions.
Precision agriculture – The use of satellites, drones, and sensors helps farmers monitor soil conditions, water needs, and pest infestations.
Example: In the USA, precision farming has increased crop yields while reducing fertilizer use.
Hydroponics and vertical farming – These techniques allow food to be grown in urban areas without soil, reducing transportation costs and improving food access.
Example: Singapore uses vertical farms to boost local food production.
Improved storage and transport – Cold storage and better supply chains reduce food wastage and ensure a steady supply of food.
Example: In India, improved cold storage facilities have helped reduce post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables.
5(a) Describe the impacts of rural-urban migration on rural areas.
✅ Positive Effects:
More money sent home: People who move to cities or other countries often send money back to their families, helping them live better.
Example: In Mexico, money sent from the USA helps rural families pay for food, school, and healthcare.
Less pressure on land: With fewer people farming the land, there’s less damage like overgrazing or cutting down trees.
Example: In India, some areas where many people have moved away have seen forests grow back.
Stronger roles for women: When men leave to find work, women often take on bigger roles in farming and leading the community.
Example: In Sub-Saharan Africa, many women now manage farms and make important family decisions.
❌ Negative Effects:
Not enough workers: When many young people leave, farms don’t have enough workers, so less food is grown.
Example: In Nepal, farmland is often left empty because so many young people have moved away.
More elderly people left behind: As young people move, the population that stays behind gets older and needs more care.
Families split up: When children or parents move away, it can make those left behind feel lonely and break traditional family support systems.
Local businesses close: With fewer people living in rural areas, shops and schools may shut down, making the economy weaker.
5(b) With the aid of examples, explain the role of push factors in rural-urban migration.
💰 Economic Push Factors:
Few jobs and low pay: In rural areas, most people farm just enough to survive or work in short-term jobs that don’t pay well.
Example: In Bangladesh, many poor people move to big cities like Dhaka to find better work.
No banking or business support: People often can’t borrow money or start businesses in rural areas, so they move to cities for better chances.
🏥 Social Push Factors:
Poor schools and hospitals: Countryside areas may not have good education or healthcare, so families move to cities for better services.
Example: In India, people move to cities like Mumbai or Delhi so their children can go to better schools.
Few chances for women: In some rural areas, women are expected to stay at home and don’t get to study or work. They may move to cities for more freedom.
🌦 Environmental Push Factors:
Natural disasters and climate change: Problems like droughts, floods, and poor soil make farming difficult and push people to leave.
Example: In Somalia, repeated droughts have forced many people to move to towns and cities.
Not enough clean water: When rural areas don’t have safe drinking water, people often move to places where it’s easier to live.
🏛 Political Push Factors:
Poor services and roads: In some places, the government does not invest in rural areas. Without electricity, roads, or support, people move to cities.
Example: In Nigeria, many rural areas have few services, so people move to cities like Lagos.
Violence and war: Fighting, conflict, or danger can force people to leave their homes for safety.
Example: In Syria, many people from the countryside have moved to cities or even other countries to escape war.
4(a)(i) Define the concept of carrying capacity.
The carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population size that its resources (food, water, land) and infrastructure can sustain indefinitely without degrading the environment.
For full marks:
1 mark for stating that it refers to the maximum sustainable population.
1 mark for mentioning that it depends on available resources.
1 mark for including the concept of sustainability (i.e., long-term balance between population and resources).
Example definition:
Carrying capacity is the largest number of people an environment can support indefinitely without causing environmental degradation, resource depletion, or decline in quality of life.
4(a)(ii) Briefly explain two causes of food shortages.
Climate change and natural disasters – Extreme weather events like droughts, floods, and hurricanes reduce crop yields and damage food supplies.
Example: Droughts in Ethiopia have led to repeated food shortages.
Population growth exceeding food production – Rapid population increases lead to higher food demand, which outstrips agricultural production capacity.
Example: In India, population growth has increased pressure on food resources, leading to periodic food crises.
Poor infrastructure and distribution systems – Even when food is available, lack of storage, transport, and market access leads to wastage.
Example: In Sub-Saharan Africa, food shortages persist due to inadequate storage and road networks.
Conflicts and war – Wars and political instability disrupt agriculture, food distribution, and trade, leading to famine.
Example: Yemen has suffered from food shortages due to ongoing conflict.
4(b) With the aid of examples, explain the factors that lead to increasing food production in an area.
Mechanization and use of technology – Advanced farm machinery, irrigation, and GPS-based precision farming increase efficiency.
Example: In the USA, mechanized farming has led to higher wheat and corn yields.
Genetically Modified (GM) Crops – GM crops are disease-resistant, drought-resistant, and have higher yields.
Example: Bt cotton in India has increased production by reducing pest damage.
Use of fertilizers and pesticides – Chemical fertilizers boost soil nutrients, while pesticides protect crops from insects and diseases.
Example: In Brazil, fertilizer use has contributed to record soybean production.
Irrigation and improved water management – Efficient irrigation techniques like drip irrigation and hydroponics allow farming in dry areas.
Example: Israel’s use of drip irrigation has improved farming efficiency in arid regions.
Expansion of farmland through deforestation and land reclamation – Clearing forests and reclaiming wetlands or coastal areas increases arable land.
Example: In China, land reclamation projects have converted unused land into farmland.
5(b) Explain the impact of rural-urban migration on population structures of LICs/MICs for both source and receiving/destination areas.
Impacts on Source Areas (Rural Areas)
Aging population – Many young people migrate, leaving behind an older population.
Example: In rural Nepal, villages are dominated by elderly residents.
Gender imbalance – Mostly young men migrate, leaving more women in rural areas.
Example: In India, rural areas see a higher proportion of women as men move to cities for work.
Declining birth rates – With fewer young adults, birth rates decrease, leading to population decline over time.
Impacts on Destination Areas (Urban Areas)
Youthful population structure – Cities gain young, working-age individuals, reducing dependency ratios.
Example: Lagos, Nigeria, has a high percentage of young migrants.
Population growth and overcrowding – Rapid migration leads to high population density, slums, and poor living conditions.
Example: Dharavi slum in Mumbai, India, has grown due to rural-urban migration.
Increased demand for jobs and services – More schools, hospitals, and housing are needed to accommodate new residents.
4(a) For your case study of Singapore’s population policy: Outline the difficulties that led to the policy.
- Post-Independence Overpopulation (1950s–1970s) – Led to the “Stop at Two” Policy
High birth rates – In the 1950s and 1960s, Singapore had a high fertility rate (TFR over 5.0), leading to concerns about overpopulation.
Limited resources – Singapore had little land, water, and natural resources to support a rapidly growing population.
Housing and job shortages – Rapid population growth led to slum conditions, unemployment, and inadequate infrastructure. - Aging Population and Declining Birth Rates (1980s–Present) – Led to the Pro-Natalist Policy
Fertility rate fell below replacement level – By the 1980s, fertility rates had dropped below 2.1 children per woman due to urbanization and economic changes.
Aging population – With longer life expectancy and fewer births, the proportion of elderly people increased, creating concerns over economic productivity and healthcare costs.
Delayed marriages and fewer children – More women focused on careers and education, leading to later marriages and smaller families.
Economic impact – A shrinking workforce threatened economic growth and innovation.
4(b) Explain the attempted solutions to these difficulties.
- Anti-Natalist Policy: “Stop at Two” Campaign (1960s–1970s)
Government promoted smaller families through family planning programs.
Disincentives for large families:
Higher hospital fees for third and subsequent children.
Limited school priority for larger families.
Sterilization incentives were provided to women who agreed to not have more children. - Pro-Natalist Policy: “Have Three or More If You Can Afford It” (1987–Present)
Incentives to encourage more births:
Cash bonuses (Baby Bonus Scheme) and tax benefits for parents.
Paid maternity and paternity leave to support working parents.
Subsidized childcare to reduce financial burdens.
Encouraging marriage and family formation:
The Social Development Network (SDN) was created to promote dating and marriage among young Singaporeans.
Public housing benefits were given to married couples to encourage early family formation.
Immigration policies to supplement population growth:
Singapore welcomed highly skilled foreign workers and permanent residents to address labor shortages.
5(b) With the aid of examples, explain the causes of economic migration.
- Push Factors: Economic Hardships in Home Country
Unemployment and low wages – People leave countries with high unemployment and poor wages for better job prospects.
Example: Many Mexicans migrate to the USA for better wages and employment opportunities.
Poor working conditions – Workers in some countries face low job security, lack of benefits, and poor labor rights, pushing them to migrate.
Example: Many Filipino domestic workers migrate to Hong Kong and the Middle East for better salaries and working conditions.
Economic instability and poverty – People move to countries with stronger economies to improve their financial status.
Example: Migrants from Venezuela have moved to Colombia and Brazil due to hyperinflation and economic collapse.
- Pull Factors: Better Economic Opportunities Abroad
Higher wages and job availability – Developed nations offer better salaries and stable jobs.
Example: Many Indian and Pakistani engineers migrate to the Gulf States for well-paid construction and oil industry jobs.
Better quality of life and social benefits – Economic migrants are attracted to countries with healthcare, education, and welfare benefits.
Example: Many African migrants move to France and Germany for access to welfare and employment support.
Business and investment opportunities – Some migrants move to start businesses in countries with better economies.
Example: Chinese entrepreneurs migrate to African countries to establish trade and business ventures.
5(a) Contrast Between Voluntary and Forced International Migration
- Voluntary Migration
Movement based on choice for better opportunities (economic, social).
Push Factors:
Unemployment, low wages, better career prospects, lifestyle improvements.
Pull Factors:
Higher salaries, better healthcare, family reunification.
Decision-making:
Planned and based on personal choice.
Legal Framework:
Requires work permits and residency applications.
Examples:
Indian professionals moving to the USA for tech jobs.
Retirees relocating to Spain for a better climate. - Forced Migration
Movement due to conflict, persecution, or disasters.
Push Factors:
War, political persecution, natural disasters, ethnic cleansing.
Pull Factors:
Safety, asylum policies, international aid.
Decision-making:
Sudden and often involuntary.
Legal Framework:
Protected under asylum and refugee laws (UNHCR).
Examples:
Syrian refugees fleeing to Europe due to war.
Rohingya people escaping ethnic persecution in Myanmar.
4(a)(i) Define the concept of underpopulation.
Underpopulation occurs when a country or region has fewer people than needed to make full use of its resources for economic growth and development.
It means that there are too few workers to support industries, infrastructure, and public services efficiently.
This can lead to low productivity, high dependency ratios, and economic stagnation.
4(a)(ii) Suggest two problems that underpopulation causes for an area when developing its resources.
Labor Shortages
A lack of workers can slow economic growth, reduce productivity, and make industries dependent on foreign labor.
Example: Australia faces labor shortages in agriculture and mining due to its low population density.
High Costs of Providing Public Services
With fewer taxpayers, governments struggle to fund healthcare, education, and infrastructure, making services more expensive per person.
Example: Canada’s rural areas face difficulties in maintaining schools and hospitals due to low population densities.
4(b) With the aid of examples, explain the consequences for an area caused by food shortages.
- Malnutrition and Disease
Lack of food leads to malnutrition, weakened immune systems, and increased disease vulnerability.
Example: Somalia suffers from severe malnutrition due to recurring droughts and food insecurity. - Economic Decline and Low Productivity
Food shortages increase prices, reduce worker efficiency, and slow economic growth.
Example: Zimbabwe faced economic collapse when food shortages led to inflation and job losses. - Social and Political Unrest
Hunger and frustration can cause riots, protests, and conflicts.
Example: The 2011 Arab Spring was partly triggered by rising food prices and shortages. - Forced Migration
People move away from areas with frequent food shortages, increasing urban migration and pressure on city resources.
Example: Ethiopians migrate to urban centers due to drought-related food insecurity.
5(a)(i) Define the process of urban‒urban migration.
Urban‒urban migration refers to the movement of people from one city or town to another within the same country or region for reasons such as employment, education, or lifestyle changes.
It differs from rural-urban migration, as people remain in urban areas rather than moving from rural to urban regions.
5(a)(ii) Suggest two reasons for urban‒urban migration.
Employment and Career Opportunities
People move to cities with better job prospects, higher salaries, or career advancements.
Example: Many young professionals in China move from smaller cities to Shanghai or Beijing for better jobs.
Better Quality of Life and Services
People migrate to cities with better healthcare, education, housing, and lifestyle options.
Example: In India, many move from Chennai to Bangalore for better infrastructure and IT job opportunities.
5(b) With the aid of examples, explain the role of push factors in urban‒rural migration.
- High Cost of Living and Housing Shortages
Expensive rent and living costs make cities unaffordable, pushing people to rural areas where housing is cheaper.
Example: In the UK, people move from London to smaller towns due to rising property prices. - Traffic Congestion and Pollution
Long commutes, high noise levels, and air pollution make city life undesirable.
Example: Many residents of Mexico City relocate to smaller towns to escape extreme congestion and pollution. - High Crime Rates and Social Issues
Increasing crime and insecurity drive families to seek safer rural environments.
Example: In South Africa, many professionals leave Johannesburg for safer suburban or rural areas. - Job Loss and Unemployment in Urban Areas
Economic downturns, company closures, and automation can cause job losses, forcing people to seek opportunities in rural areas.
Example: Detroit, USA, saw population decline as factories closed, leading people to move to smaller towns.
4(a)(i) Give the meaning of the term overpopulation.
Overpopulation occurs when the population size exceeds the carrying capacity of an area, meaning there are too many people relative to available resources such as food, water, jobs, and infrastructure.
This results in lower living standards, environmental degradation, and increased pressure on public services.
Example: Bangladesh experiences overpopulation, leading to high unemployment, congestion, and inadequate housing.
4(a)(ii) Explain how overpopulation may be caused by changes in natural increase.
High Birth Rates and Population Growth
A high birth rate increases population size faster than economic growth can sustain it.
Example: Niger has one of the world’s highest birth rates, leading to overcrowding and resource shortages.
Declining Death Rates Due to Medical Advances
Better healthcare, vaccinations, and sanitation reduce death rates, leading to higher survival rates.
Example: In India, improved healthcare has led to lower infant mortality, increasing population size.
Imbalanced Dependency Ratio
High fertility rates result in a large youth population, creating pressure on education, jobs, and services.
Example: In Nigeria, a young population puts strain on schools and job markets, leading to urban congestion.
Limited Use of Contraceptives and Family Planning
In some cultures, lack of birth control access or religious beliefs result in high fertility rates.
Example: In Afghanistan, cultural norms favor large families, leading to rapid population growth.
4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why some areas in HICs may be overpopulated.
High Population Density in Major Cities
Urban centers attract migrants, businesses, and industries, leading to housing shortages, traffic congestion, and pollution.
Example: London, UK, struggles with overcrowding, high living costs, and transport congestion.
Aging Population and Healthcare Strain
In some HICs, an aging population increases demand for healthcare and pensions, creating resource shortages.
Example: Japan faces labor shortages and rising elderly care costs due to demographic imbalances.
Environmental Limitations and Resource Shortages
Some areas lack water, arable land, or energy sources, making even small populations unsustainable.
Example: Las Vegas, USA, is overpopulated in relation to its water supply, leading to severe water shortages.
Economic Migration and Housing Crises
Large numbers of migrants seeking jobs in economic hubs create housing shortages and strain on services.
Example: New York City faces housing crises and expensive real estate due to high demand.
5(a) With the aid of examples, describe how the age of migrants may impact on the population structure of a receiving/destination area.
Increase in the Working-Age Population (15–40 Years Old)
Young adult migrants boost the workforce, reducing dependency ratios and increasing productivity.
Example: The UK relies on young Eastern European migrants to support industries like healthcare and construction.
Higher Birth Rates and Population Growth
Migrants often have higher fertility rates, leading to population increase in destination areas.
Example: In Germany, Syrian refugees have contributed to higher birth rates, reversing population decline.
Aging Population Can Also Increase
Some migration involves retirees moving to warmer climates, increasing the elderly population in those areas.
Example: Spain’s coastal regions attract British retirees, increasing the need for healthcare services.
Gender Imbalances
Migration patterns may favor male workers, creating gender imbalances in certain areas.
Example: In the UAE, male laborers from South Asia dominate the construction sector, leading to a skewed sex ratio.
5(b) For your case study of one international migration stream, explain the causes of the migration.
Case Study: Mexican Migration to the USA
- Push Factors (Reasons for Leaving Mexico)
High Unemployment and Low Wages
Limited job opportunities push Mexicans to seek employment in the USA.
Example: Average wages in Mexico are significantly lower than in the USA.
Crime and Violence
Drug cartels and gang-related violence force people to migrate for safety.
Example: Increased crime rates in cities like Tijuana and Ciudad Juárez have driven many to flee.
Environmental Factors and Natural Disasters
Droughts and food insecurity in rural Mexico lead to migration toward urban and international destinations.
Example: Farmers affected by climate change in northern Mexico seek stability in the USA.
- Pull Factors (Reasons for Moving to the USA)
Higher Wages and Employment Opportunities
The USA offers higher wages and more job availability, especially in agriculture and construction.
Example: Many Mexicans work in California’s agricultural sector, benefiting from higher incomes.
Better Healthcare and Education
The USA provides better medical services and education for migrant families.
Example: Migrant children in Texas and Arizona receive free public schooling.
Family Reunification and Social Networks
Many Mexicans have relatives in the USA, making migration easier through family sponsorship.
Example: Mexican-American communities in Los Angeles and Chicago help new migrants settle.
4(a)(ii) Explain why the dependency ratio may vary within a country.
Differences Between Urban and Rural Areas
Rural areas may have higher youth dependency as families have more children.
Urban areas may have lower youth dependency but higher elderly dependency due to retirees staying in cities.
Economic Differences and Job Opportunities
Regions with more job opportunities attract working-age adults, lowering the dependency ratio.
Areas with fewer jobs may have more elderly and children, increasing the dependency ratio.
Example: London (UK) has a lower dependency ratio due to high employment opportunities, while rural areas have higher dependency.
Migration Patterns
Young workers migrate to cities for jobs, leaving rural areas with more dependents.
Retirees move to areas with better healthcare and lower living costs, increasing elderly dependency in some places.
Example: Florida, USA, has a high elderly dependency ratio due to retirees moving there.
Government Policies and Social Services
Areas with better healthcare and pension systems may retain more elderly people.
Example: Germany’s social welfare system leads to a higher elderly population in certain regions.
4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why the dependency ratio is changing in many LICs.
Declining Birth Rates Due to Family Planning
Many LICs are experiencing lower fertility rates due to greater use of contraception and family planning programs.
Example: Ethiopia’s government has promoted contraceptive use, leading to a decline in birth rates and a lower youth dependency ratio.
Aging Population Due to Improved Healthcare
Better healthcare and lower infant mortality mean more people live longer, increasing elderly dependency ratios.
Example: In Bangladesh, increased life expectancy is raising the elderly population, shifting dependency patterns.
Rural-Urban Migration and Workforce Shifts
Young adults migrate to cities, reducing dependency ratios in urban areas but increasing them in rural regions.
Example: In Nigeria, rural areas have high youth dependency, while cities like Lagos have more working-age people.
Economic Growth and Education Expansion
As economies grow, more people pursue higher education, delaying childbirth and reducing birth rates.
Example: India’s growing middle class has seen reduced birth rates and shifting dependency ratios.
5(a)(i) Describe the process of stepped migration.
Stepped migration refers to the movement of people in stages, often starting from rural areas to small towns, then to larger cities, and finally to major urban centers.
It occurs because migrants gain experience, resources, and knowledge at each step before moving further.
Example:
A farmer moves from a village in India → small town → regional city (Bangalore) → major city (Mumbai) for better job opportunities.
5(a)(ii) Explain why stepped migration is less likely to occur in international migration.
Strict Immigration Laws and Visa Requirements
Many countries impose visa restrictions, making it harder for migrants to move gradually from country to country.
Example: USA and EU countries have strict immigration laws preventing gradual migration.
Higher Costs and Travel Barriers
International migration involves higher costs for travel, visas, and legal fees, making one-time relocation more common.
Example: Syrian refugees often migrate directly to Germany or Sweden instead of moving in steps.
Lack of Intervening Opportunities in Some Countries
Unlike within a country, migrants may not find work or support in transit nations, leading them to move directly to final destinations.
Example: Many Mexican migrants move directly to the USA, rather than stopping in Central American countries.
5(b) Explain why people migrate within urban settlements (intra-urban movements).
Housing Upgrades and Better Living Conditions
People move to better housing areas as their income increases.
Example: In New York City, residents move from low-income apartments in the Bronx to suburban homes in New Jersey.
Job Changes and Workplace Proximity
Workers relocate closer to job centers to reduce commute time.
Example: In Mumbai, professionals move from distant suburbs to areas near business districts.
Educational and Family Needs
Families move closer to better schools for their children.
Example: London families move near top-ranking schools in areas like Kensington.
Gentrification and Urban Renewal
As neighborhoods improve, people move in for better amenities.
Example: Brooklyn, New York, has attracted wealthier residents due to gentrification.
4(a)(i) Define the term mortality rate.
Mortality rate, also known as the death rate, refers to the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population per year.
It is a key demographic indicator used to measure the overall health and life expectancy of a population.
Example: If a country has 10 deaths per 1,000 people annually, its mortality rate is 10 per 1,000.
4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why infant mortality rates (IMR) are decreasing in many MICs.
Better Healthcare Services and Medical Technology
Increased access to hospitals, trained midwives, and neonatal care reduces infant deaths.
Example: In Brazil, expanded maternal healthcare and neonatal units have led to a sharp decline in IMR.
Widespread Vaccination Programs
Mass immunization campaigns prevent common childhood diseases such as measles and polio.
Example: In Bangladesh, measles vaccinations have significantly lowered infant deaths.
Improved Nutrition and Food Security
Better diets for mothers and infants reduce malnutrition-related deaths.
Example: Mexico’s food assistance programs have helped lower IMR by combating malnutrition.
Increased Female Education and Family Planning
Educated mothers are more likely to seek healthcare, practice good hygiene, and use contraception.
Example: Thailand’s IMR declined as women gained better access to education and family planning.
Government Policies and Public Health Campaigns
Many MICs have implemented policies to improve maternal and infant health.
Example: China’s maternal healthcare programs have reduced neonatal mortality in rural areas.
4(a)(ii) Contrast the infant mortality rates (IMR) in HICs and LICs/MICs.
Higher IMR in LICs/MICs Compared to HICs
Infant mortality rates are significantly higher in low-income countries (LICs) than in high-income countries (HICs).
Example: Chad (LIC) has an IMR of 66 per 1,000 births, whereas Norway (HIC) has an IMR of 2 per 1,000 births.
Steeper Decline in IMR in LICs/MICs
Many LICs and MICs have rapidly declining IMRs due to improved healthcare, vaccinations, and sanitation.
Example: India’s IMR dropped from 80 per 1,000 in 1990 to 27 per 1,000 in 2020 due to better healthcare.
IMR in HICs is More Stable and Low
HICs have low and stable infant mortality rates due to advanced medical care and maternal health services.
Example: The IMR in Sweden has remained below 3 per 1,000 births for decades.
Greater Variability in IMR Within LICs/MICs
IMR varies more in LICs/MICs due to regional disparities in healthcare, poverty, and infrastructure.
Example: In Nigeria, urban areas have much lower IMR than rural regions with limited healthcare access.
5(a) With the aid of examples, explain the advantages and disadvantages of stepped migration for the migrant.
Advantages of Stepped Migration:
Gradual Adjustment to Urban Life
Migrants can adapt to each new environment slowly, reducing culture shock and financial strain.
Example: A farmer in India may first move to a small town before settling in Mumbai.
Increased Economic Stability
Migrants can save money and gain work experience in smaller urban areas before moving to major cities.
Example: Nigerian migrants often move to regional towns first to secure jobs before heading to Lagos.
Social Support Networks
Migrants establish social connections along their migration path, reducing isolation and financial risks.
Example: In Brazil, rural migrants first move to secondary cities before reaching São Paulo.
Disadvantages of Stepped Migration:
Takes Longer to Reach the Final Destination
Moving in stages delays the migrant’s ability to access higher-paying jobs in major cities.
Example: A migrant in Indonesia may spend years in smaller towns before reaching Jakarta.
Higher Overall Cost of Migration
Multiple moves require more transportation, housing, and job transitions, increasing financial costs.
Example: Ethiopian migrants to Addis Ababa spend more money on transport and rent by moving in stages.
Uncertainty and Social Disruption
Migrants may struggle with job insecurity, discrimination, and frequent relocations.
Example: In Mexico, migrants moving to different urban centers before reaching Mexico City face unstable employment.
5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why people migrate between urban settlements (urban-urban movements).
Employment Opportunities and Career Growth
Many people move from smaller cities to larger ones for higher salaries, job promotions, or industry shifts.
Example: In China, workers migrate from Chengdu to Beijing for better tech industry jobs.
Better Education and Healthcare Services
Larger cities offer better universities and hospitals, attracting families and professionals.
Example: Medical professionals in South Africa move from small towns to Cape Town for advanced hospitals.
Lower Cost of Living and Housing Availability
Some move from expensive mega-cities to mid-sized cities to reduce living expenses.
Example: Many New Yorkers move to Philadelphia for cheaper housing and lower taxes.
Environmental and Lifestyle Preferences
Some migrate for less pollution, better climate, or improved quality of life.
Example: Many residents of Bangkok, Thailand, move to Chiang Mai for cleaner air and relaxed living.
Relocation Due to Urban Redevelopment
Some people are forced to move due to gentrification or infrastructure projects.
Example: Rio de Janeiro’s favela residents were relocated due to Olympic Games urban renewal projects.
4(a)(i) Describe how to calculate the dependency ratio.
Dependency Ratio = (Young dependents (0-14) + Elderly dependents (65+)) ÷ Working-age population (15-64) × 100
4(a) Describe the problems of an ageing population.
Increased Healthcare Costs
Older people require more medical care, including hospitals, medications, and nursing homes.
Example: Japan faces rising healthcare costs due to its growing elderly population.
Strain on Pension Systems
A larger elderly population means more people claiming pensions while fewer workers contribute.
Example: In Germany, the government raised the retirement age to sustain the pension system.
Labor Shortages and Economic Slowdown
Fewer young workers result in reduced economic productivity and labor shortages in key industries.
Example: South Korea is experiencing a declining workforce, affecting manufacturing and services.
Need for Elderly Care Services
Increased demand for nursing homes, home care, and assisted living facilities.
Example: The UK’s elderly population growth has increased demand for care workers and support services.
Changes in Family Structure
More elderly dependents increase the financial and emotional burden on families.
Example: The “4-2-1” problem means one child supports two parents and four grandparents.
Housing and Infrastructure Challenges
Cities must adapt housing, transport, and public spaces for elderly needs.
Example: Singapore has developed age-friendly housing and transport services
4(b) Explain how the dependency ratio would be expected to change over time according to the demographic transition model (DTM).
Stage 1: High Dependency Ratio (High Birth and Death Rates)
Both young and elderly dependents are high, leading to a high dependency ratio.
Example: Pre-industrial societies had low life expectancy and high birth rates, making children a large dependent group.
Stage 2: Lower Dependency Ratio (Death Rates Drop, Birth Rates Stay High)
Fewer deaths mean a larger working-age population, lowering the dependency ratio.
Example: India in the early 20th century experienced falling death rates but still had many children.
Stage 3: Dependency Ratio Drops Further (Birth Rates Decline)
As birth rates drop, fewer young dependents exist, and the working-age population grows.
Example: Brazil in the 21st century saw lower fertility rates and a growing workforce.
Stage 4: Dependency Ratio Starts Rising Again (Ageing Population)
Lower birth rates and longer life expectancy lead to a higher elderly population, raising dependency again.
Example: Germany and Japan now have high elderly dependency ratios.
Stage 5: Very High Dependency Ratio (More Elderly Dependents)
More retirees than workers, causing economic strain.
Example: Italy’s ageing population is leading to a shrinking workforce.
5(a) Describe the impacts on population characteristics of urban areas caused by urban–rural migration.
Ageing Urban Population
Younger people leave cities, making the remaining population older.
Example: In Japan, many cities have an ageing population as younger people move to rural areas.
Decline in Working-Age Population
Fewer young professionals and laborers, reducing economic productivity.
Example: Paris has seen a decline in younger workers moving to suburban and rural areas.
Increased Vacancy and Housing Decline
Empty apartments and buildings lead to urban decay.
Example: Detroit, USA, has many abandoned properties due to population decline.
Change in Socioeconomic Structure
Higher-income residents stay, while lower-income groups struggle with high costs.
Example: London has seen wealthier individuals dominate city housing as middle-income families move out.
5(b) Explain why people migrate from urban areas to rural areas in HICs.
Lower Cost of Living and Housing
Urban housing is expensive, pushing people to rural areas for affordable homes.
Example: Many New Yorkers move to rural Pennsylvania for cheaper housing and lower taxes.
Better Quality of Life and Less Pollution
Rural areas offer cleaner air, less traffic, and green spaces.
Example: In the UK, people move from London to countryside villages for peace and quiet.
Remote Work and Technological Advancements
Better internet access allows people to work from home in rural areas.
Example: During COVID-19, many Americans left cities for rural homes with remote work flexibility.
Retirement and Ageing Population
Many retirees move to the countryside for a slower-paced lifestyle.
Example: Florida, USA, attracts retirees due to its warm climate and lower living costs.
4(a)(i) Define the term infant mortality rate (IMR).
Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of deaths of children under the age of one year per 1,000 live births per year.
It is an important indicator of a country’s healthcare quality, sanitation, and living conditions.
Example: If a country has 25 infant deaths per 1,000 live births, the IMR is 25 per 1,000.
4(a)(ii) Suggest two environmental factors that cause high infant mortality rates (IMR) in LICs/MICs.
Poor Water Quality and Sanitation
Contaminated water sources lead to waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhea, which are major causes of infant deaths.
Example: In Bangladesh, lack of clean drinking water has contributed to high IMR due to infections.
Climate-Related Food Shortages (Droughts and Floods)
Droughts reduce food availability, leading to malnutrition, while floods increase disease outbreaks.
Example: In Somalia, recurring droughts and food shortages have resulted in high infant mortality rates.
4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why infant mortality rates (IMR) are low in HICs.
Advanced Healthcare Systems
HICs have high-quality hospitals, trained medical staff, and modern neonatal care.
Example: Norway provides free healthcare and advanced neonatal services, ensuring low infant mortality rates.
Higher Maternal Education Levels
Educated mothers are more likely to follow proper prenatal care, child nutrition, and hygiene practices.
Example: In Japan, maternal education has led to better infant care and reduced mortality.
Effective Vaccination and Disease Control
HICs have widespread vaccination programs that prevent measles, polio, and pneumonia.
Example: The UK’s National Health Service (NHS) ensures all infants receive vaccinations, lowering IMR.
Better Nutrition and Childcare Support
Good nutrition during pregnancy and proper infant feeding programs reduce IMR.
Example: Germany’s government-funded child welfare programs support healthy child development.
Clean Water and Sanitation Infrastructure
Safe drinking water and sanitation systems prevent infant deaths from diarrheal diseases.
Example: Sweden has universal access to clean water, lowering infant mortality rates.
5(a) Describe how the characteristics of migrants leaving a source area may have an impact on the population structure of the source area.
Loss of Young and Working-Age Population
Many migrants are young adults (15-40 years old), leaving behind an aging population.
Example: In Mexico, migration to the USA has left rural areas with a higher elderly population.
Gender Imbalance
Men migrate more than women for work, leading to more females in the source area.
Example: In Nepal, many young men migrate to Gulf countries, leaving women to manage farms and households.
Higher Dependency Ratio
Fewer working-age people means a higher proportion of children and elderly dependents.
Example: Syria’s refugee crisis left many towns with more dependents than working adults.
Brain Drain and Skill Shortages
Skilled professionals (doctors, engineers, teachers) migrate, leaving critical job shortages.
Example: India has lost many IT professionals to Europe and North America, impacting economic growth.
Decline in Birth Rates
Fewer young couples mean lower fertility rates, leading to population decline over time.
Example: In Eastern Europe, migration to Western countries has contributed to population shrinkage.
5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why people migrate from rural areas to urban areas in LICs/MICs.
Better Employment Opportunities
Cities offer higher wages and more jobs in factories, offices, and service industries.
Example: Many rural Indians migrate to Mumbai for jobs in manufacturing and finance.
Better Healthcare and Education
Cities have modern hospitals and schools, attracting families who want better services.
Example: In Nigeria, rural families move to Lagos for better schools and medical care.
Poverty and Lack of Services in Rural Areas
Rural areas often lack electricity, clean water, and roads, forcing migration to cities.
Example: In Ethiopia, poor infrastructure pushes people to Addis Ababa.
Agricultural Challenges (Droughts, Land Shortages)
Limited farmland and climate issues reduce rural incomes, forcing migration.
Example: In Bangladesh, river flooding forces many to move to Dhaka.
Social and Cultural Attractions
Cities offer modern lifestyles, entertainment, and social opportunities, attracting youth.
Example: Many young Brazilians leave villages for Rio de Janeiro for a modern lifestyle.
4(a) Describe the changes in the death rate in the demographic transition model (DTM).
Stage 1 (High Stationary Stage)
Death rates are high and fluctuate due to disease, famine, poor sanitation, and lack of medical care.
Example: Pre-industrial societies (e.g., historical Europe before the 18th century).
Stage 2 (Early Expanding Stage)
Death rates drop sharply due to improved healthcare, sanitation, and food supply.
Example: 19th-century India and parts of Africa after medical and agricultural advancements.
Stage 3 (Late Expanding Stage)
Death rates continue to fall but at a slower rate due to medical advancements and improved living conditions.
Example: China in the mid-20th century experienced declining mortality due to health reforms.
Stage 4 (Low Stationary Stage)
Death rates are low and stable due to advanced healthcare and better disease control.
Example: Most HICs today, like Japan, Canada, and Germany.
Stage 5 (Declining Stage, Possible Population Decline)
Death rates may rise slightly due to an ageing population and lifestyle diseases.
Example: Italy and Japan experience higher death rates due to ageing populations.
4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why death rates fall with the increased economic development of an area.
Improved Healthcare and Medical Facilities
More hospitals, doctors, and access to medicine reduce mortality rates.
Example: In Singapore, government investment in public healthcare has led to low death rates.
Better Nutrition and Food Security
Economic growth improves agricultural production and food availability, reducing malnutrition-related deaths.
Example: China’s Green Revolution improved food supply, lowering death rates.
Improved Sanitation and Clean Water Supply
Access to clean water and proper sanitation reduces deaths from waterborne diseases.
Example: In South Korea, widespread urban sanitation programs led to a decline in death rates.
Education and Awareness
Educated populations adopt healthier lifestyles, hygiene practices, and family planning.
Example: Finland’s health campaigns reduced smoking and heart disease deaths.
Industrialization and Job Security
A strong economy provides stable jobs and better incomes, improving quality of life.
Example: Germany’s post-war industrial growth improved living conditions and reduced mortality.
5(a) Describe different ways of classifying types of population movements.
By Cause
Forced migration (e.g., war, natural disasters).
Voluntary migration (e.g., for jobs, education).
Example: Syrian refugees are forced migrants, while Indian IT workers moving to the USA are voluntary migrants.
By Distance
Internal migration (within a country, e.g., rural-urban migration).
International migration (between countries).
Example: Mexicans moving to the USA is international migration, while Brazilians moving to São Paulo is internal migration.
By Duration
Temporary migration (seasonal jobs, students).
Permanent migration (permanent settlement).
Example: Nepali workers in Qatar are temporary migrants, while Germans moving to Canada permanently are permanent migrants.
By Direction
Rural-urban migration (moving to cities).
Urban-rural migration (counterurbanization).
Example: Many people from China’s countryside migrate to cities like Beijing, while some retirees move from London to rural areas.
By Type of Movement
Stepped migration (moving in stages, e.g., village → town → city).
Chain migration (families move after relatives have settled).
Example: Many Indian migrants settle in the UK through chain migration, following relatives.
5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why the level of internal migration has increased in many LICs/MICs.
Urban Job Opportunities and Higher Wages
Cities offer more jobs in factories, retail, and services compared to rural areas.
Example: Mumbai, India, attracts millions of rural migrants for work in finance and industry.
Improved Transportation and Infrastructure
Better roads, buses, and trains make migration easier.
Example: China’s high-speed rail has made internal migration more accessible.
Education and Healthcare Access
Cities have better schools, universities, and hospitals, attracting families.
Example: Lagos, Nigeria, has better education and healthcare than rural areas.
Declining Agriculture and Climate Change
Droughts, floods, and soil depletion push rural populations to cities.
Example: Bangladeshi farmers move to Dhaka due to flooding and farmland loss.
Government Policies and Investment
Governments develop urban areas and promote migration for economic growth.
Example: Brazil’s policies encouraged migration to Brasília to develop the capital.
4(a) Describe the changes in the birth rate in the demographic transition model (DTM).
Stage 1 (High Stationary Stage)
Birth rates are high and fluctuate due to lack of contraception, high infant mortality, and reliance on subsistence farming.
Example: Pre-industrial societies, such as many hunter-gatherer societies.
Stage 2 (Early Expanding Stage)
Birth rates remain high, but death rates start to decline, leading to rapid population growth.
Reasons: Improved healthcare, sanitation, and food supply reduce infant mortality, so people continue having large families.
Example: 19th-century India and Africa in the 20th century.
Stage 3 (Late Expanding Stage)
Birth rates begin to fall significantly as urbanization, education, and access to contraception increase.
Reasons: Women delay childbirth due to career opportunities, and children are no longer needed for labor.
Example: Brazil and Mexico in the late 20th century.
Stage 4 (Low Stationary Stage)
Birth rates are low and stable, leading to slow or zero population growth.
Reasons: Widespread use of contraception, gender equality, and changing social norms.
Example: USA, Canada, and the UK today.
Stage 5 (Declining Stage)
Birth rates may fall below replacement level, leading to population decline.
Reasons: Ageing population, economic insecurity, and low fertility preferences.
Example: Japan and Germany today.
4(b) With the aid of examples, explain why infant mortality rates fall with the increased economic development of an area.
Improved Healthcare Facilities
More hospitals, trained doctors, and access to medicine reduce infant mortality.
Example: Singapore’s public healthcare system provides free maternal care, reducing IMR.
Better Nutrition and Food Security
Economic growth improves food production, nutrition, and child health.
Example: India’s Green Revolution increased food supply, lowering malnutrition-related infant deaths.
Clean Water and Sanitation Improvements
Economic development enables investment in safe drinking water and sewage systems, reducing waterborne diseases.
Example: South Korea’s urban sanitation programs reduced child mortality.
Increased Maternal Education
Educated women are more likely to use healthcare services, proper hygiene, and family planning.
Example: Bangladesh’s female literacy programs helped reduce infant mortality.
Government Policies and Health Programs
Governments invest in vaccination and maternal healthcare, reducing infant deaths.
Example: The UK’s National Health Service (NHS) provides free immunizations, reducing IMR.
5(a) Describe different ways of classifying types of migrants.
By Cause of Migration
Voluntary Migration – Movement for jobs, education, or lifestyle.
Forced Migration – Due to war, natural disasters, or persecution.
Example: Syrian refugees (forced migration) vs. Indian IT workers in the USA (voluntary migration).
By Distance
Internal Migration – Moving within a country (rural-urban migration).
International Migration – Moving between countries.
Example: Mexicans moving to the USA (international) vs. Nigerians moving to Lagos (internal).
By Duration
Temporary Migration – Seasonal jobs or student migration.
Permanent Migration – Moving permanently to settle.
Example: Nepali workers in Qatar (temporary) vs. Germans moving to Canada (permanent).
By Direction
Rural-to-Urban Migration – Moving from villages to cities.
Urban-to-Rural Migration (Counterurbanization) – Moving from cities to countryside.
Example: Chinese rural workers moving to Beijing vs. UK retirees moving to villages.
By Migration Pattern
Stepped Migration – Moving in stages, first to a small town, then to a city.
Chain Migration – Moving to a place where family or community members already live.
Example: Indian families moving to the UK over generations (chain migration).
5(b) With the aid of examples, explain why the level of internal migration has increased in many HICs.
Better Job Opportunities and Higher Wages
People move from smaller towns to cities for higher salaries and career growth.
Example: Many young professionals in the USA move from rural areas to cities like New York and San Francisco.
Housing Costs and Cost of Living Differences
People migrate from expensive cities to cheaper areas for affordability.
Example: Many Londoners move to smaller UK towns due to high rent costs.
Remote Work and Digital Advancements
Technology allows people to work from home, increasing migration to suburban and rural areas.
Example: During COVID-19, many Americans moved from cities to rural towns due to remote work.
Improved Transport Infrastructure
High-speed trains and highways make commuting between cities easier, increasing migration.
Example: France’s TGV trains allow people to live in small towns but work in Paris.
Lifestyle and Quality of Life Preferences
Many families leave crowded urban areas for better schools, environment, and safety.
Example: People in Japan move from Tokyo to countryside areas for a quieter life.
4a) Describe the differences between high-order and low-order services. (3 marks)
- Frequency of Use (1 mark)
High-order services (e.g., specialist hospitals, universities) are used less frequently.
Low-order services (e.g., grocery shops, post offices) are used more often.
- Range and Threshold (1 mark)
High-order services have a larger range and require a larger threshold population to be viable.
Low-order services serve local populations and need fewer people to support them.
- Location (1 mark)
High-order services are typically found in urban centres or regional capitals.
Low-order services are common in villages or residential neighbourhoods.
4b) Explain how accessibility and sphere of influence affect the location of a service. (4 marks)
- Accessibility Encourages Service Placement (2 marks)
Services are more likely to be located where they are easily accessible by road, public transport, or foot.
Example: A shopping mall is placed at a road junction or near a transport hub to attract customers from a wide area.
- Sphere of Influence Determines Viability (2 marks)
A service’s sphere of influence is the area from which it draws customers.
Higher-order services need a large sphere of influence, so they locate centrally in urban areas.
Example: A private school may set up in a wealthier suburb with many families in the catchment area.
5a) Describe two characteristics of squatter settlements. (4 marks)
- Poor Quality and Informal Housing (2 marks)
Squatter settlements consist of temporary, poorly constructed homes made from scrap materials (e.g., corrugated iron, plastic).
They are usually built without planning permission or legal ownership of the land.
- Lack of Infrastructure and Basic Services (2 marks)
These areas often lack piped water, electricity, sanitation, and waste disposal.
Streets may be narrow and unpaved, and public health is often at risk due to open sewers and overcrowding.
5b) Explain how the quality of life for people living in squatter settlements may be improved. (4 marks)
- Provision of Basic Services (2 marks)
Governments and NGOs can provide clean water, electricity, and sanitation, improving health and daily living standards.
Example: Water kiosks and solar-powered lighting have been introduced in parts of Mumbai’s Dharavi slum.
- Self-help and Site-and-Service Schemes (2 marks)
Residents can be given land rights and support (tools/materials) to improve their own homes.
Example: In Rio de Janeiro, the government’s Favela Bairro project upgraded housing and built community centres and roads.
4a) Suggest two reasons why informal sector employment is important in urban areas. (2 marks)
- Provides Income for the Poor (1 mark)
The informal sector offers employment for those without formal qualifications, helping people survive in the absence of formal jobs. - Absorbs Excess Labour (1 mark)
In rapidly urbanising areas, the informal sector reduces unemployment by absorbing workers not captured by the formal economy.
4b) Explain the disadvantages of informal sector employment for workers. (4 marks)
- Lack of Job Security and Protection (2 marks)
Workers often lack contracts, benefits, or insurance, and may be exploited with long hours and low pay. - Poor Working Conditions and Health Risks (2 marks)
Jobs are often physically demanding and unsafe, with little enforcement of safety regulations.
Example: Street vendors may face harsh weather and accidents; waste pickers risk disease exposure.
5a) Give three characteristics of a central business district (CBD). (3 marks)
- High Land Value
The CBD has the highest land prices, leading to intensive use of space (e.g., tall buildings). - Commercial and Retail Focus
It contains department stores, banks, offices, and government buildings—the economic core of the city. - High Accessibility
It is usually the most accessible part of the city, served by major transport routes and public transit hubs.
5b) Explain why changes occur in the land use of urban areas. (5 marks)
- Economic Factors and Property Value (2 marks)
As land values increase, certain land uses (like industry) may be replaced by more profitable functions, such as housing or retail. - Technological and Transport Improvements (1 mark)
Improved transport (e.g., metro, roads) makes outer areas more accessible, leading to suburban expansion and relocation of businesses. - Government Planning and Redevelopment (1 mark)
Urban regeneration projects (e.g., building shopping malls or parks) change the function of rundown areas. - Social Trends and Demographics (1 mark)
As population needs evolve (e.g., aging population, student influx), land is reused for healthcare, education, or residential purposes.
4a) Describe the location of low-income residential areas in urban settlements. (3 marks)
- Edge of the city (1 mark)
In many LICs and MICs, low-income housing is found on the urban periphery or in informal settlements, often lacking services. - Inner-city zones (1 mark)
In some cities, especially in HICs, low-income populations live in older, high-density housing near the city centre, like former industrial areas. - Marginal or undesirable land (1 mark)
These areas are often located on steep slopes, near waste sites, floodplains, or areas unsuitable for formal development.
4b) Explain why there are differences in residential areas in urban settlements. (4 marks)
- Economic status and affordability (2 marks)
Higher-income groups can afford larger homes in desirable areas, while lower-income groups live in cheaper, overcrowded zones. - Planning history and land value (2 marks)
Historic zoning, land prices, and government policies influence where people live.
Inner-city gentrification may displace low-income residents to outer areas.
5a) Describe two environmental problems caused by urban growth. (4 marks)
- Air and noise pollution (2 marks)
More vehicles and industry in expanding cities cause air pollution (CO₂, NOx) and constant noise, leading to health problems like asthma. - Water and waste pollution (2 marks)
Overburdened drainage and waste systems lead to sewage in rivers, uncollected rubbish, and blocked waterways.
Example: Rivers in cities like Jakarta suffer from heavy pollution due to uncontrolled urban expansion.
5b) Explain why some attempts to reduce environmental problems in urban areas are more successful than others. (5 marks)
- Funding and resources (2 marks)
Richer cities can invest in advanced infrastructure and monitoring, making solutions (like clean energy, waste recycling) more effective. - Community involvement and enforcement (2 marks)
Projects succeed when local people are involved and laws are enforced (e.g., anti-littering fines, vehicle emissions limits). - Scale and long-term commitment (1 mark)
Large-scale, long-term efforts are more successful than short-term fixes.
Example: Singapore’s strict policies and planning have kept the city clean and green.
4a) Describe two characteristics of the informal sector of employment. (4 marks)
- Unregulated and Unprotected Employment (2 marks)
Informal sector jobs are typically not registered with the government and lack legal protections such as contracts, health insurance, or minimum wage.
Example: Street vendors or casual construction workers.
- Small Scale and Low Income (2 marks)
Most informal sector activities are small-scale, with limited capital, often run by individuals or families.
Income is usually unpredictable and low, with workers often living hand-to-mouth.
4b) Explain the disadvantages of informal sector employment for a country. (4 marks)
- Loss of Tax Revenue (2 marks)
Because informal workers do not pay income tax, the government loses potential revenue, limiting funds for infrastructure, healthcare, and education. - Lack of Regulation and Poor Working Conditions (2 marks)
The informal sector often has unsafe, unregulated environments, leading to public health issues and lower productivity.
Informal waste collection or food services can pose environmental and safety risks.
5a) Describe two functions of a central business district (CBD). (4 marks)
- Commercial and Retail Centre (2 marks)
The CBD is often the primary area for shopping, banking, offices, and major department stores.
It attracts a large number of customers and employees, making it a vibrant economic hub.
- Administrative and Transport Hub (2 marks)
Many CBDs house government buildings, law courts, and public offices.
It is usually well-connected by road, rail, and bus routes, making it accessible from all parts of the city.
5b) Explain why some residential areas in urban settlements have higher land values than others. (5 marks)
- Accessibility to Services and Employment (2 marks)
Areas closer to the CBD or near public transport have higher land values due to ease of access to jobs and facilities.
Example: Apartments near metro stations command higher prices.
- Environmental Quality and Amenities (2 marks)
Residential areas with clean air, green spaces, low noise levels, and security are more desirable, raising land value.
Example: Gated communities or riverfront properties.
- Prestige and Demand (1 mark)
Reputation, exclusivity, and social status increase demand for certain locations, even if they are not centrally located.
Example: Wealthy suburbs like Beverly Hills in Los Angeles or Hampstead in London.
4a) Describe two causes of informal sector employment. [4 marks]
✅ 1. Lack of formal employment opportunities (2 marks)
In many LICs and MICs, there are limited formal sector jobs, especially for people with low education or few qualifications.
People turn to the informal sector (e.g., street vending, shoe shining, casual labour) as a way to earn a living without official contracts or regulation.
✅ 2. Rapid urbanisation and population growth (2 marks)
Cities are growing faster than they can provide jobs, housing, or infrastructure.
Migrants arriving in cities often cannot find formal jobs immediately, so they create informal work to survive.
4b) Explain the effects of informal sector employment on urban areas. [4 marks]
✅ 1. Environmental and planning challenges (2 marks)
Informal businesses may operate on roadsides, pavements, or in slums, causing congestion, blocked drainage, and waste disposal issues.
✅ 2. Economic and social instability (2 marks)
Since informal workers do not pay taxes, local governments lose revenue.
The lack of regulation may lead to unfair labour conditions, low wages, and even crime or exploitation.
5a) Describe the location of industry in urban areas. [3 marks]
✅ 1. Edge-of-city industrial zones
Many modern industries are located in industrial estates or science parks on the urban fringe, where land is cheaper and more accessible.
✅ 2. Along transport routes
Industries are often near major roads, railways, or ports, for easy access to raw materials and markets.
✅ 3. Legacy inner-city locations
Older industries may be found in inner-city areas, especially in HICs and older MICs, but these may now be redeveloped or abandoned.
5b) Explain the factors which influence the growth of manufacturing industry in urban areas. [5 marks]
✅ 1. Labour supply (1 mark)
Cities have large populations, offering a diverse and abundant labour force, especially for labour-intensive industries.
✅ 2. Access to markets (1 mark)
Manufacturers locate in or near cities to serve urban consumers quickly and reduce transport costs.
✅ 3. Infrastructure and services (1 mark)
Urban areas provide electricity, water, transport, and communication networks, which are essential for production and logistics.
✅ 4. Government incentives and zoning (1 mark)
Governments may offer tax breaks, subsidies, or land in special economic zones to attract industries to urban areas.
✅ 5. Agglomeration economies (1 mark)
Industries benefit from clustering together, sharing services, suppliers, and skilled workers.
4a) Describe two advantages of informal sector employment for the people who work in it. [4 marks]
✅ 1. Source of income and survival (2 marks)
The informal sector provides vital income for people who cannot access formal employment, especially those with low education or skills.
Example: Street vending or shoe shining offers an alternative to unemployment.
✅ 2. Flexible working hours and independence (2 marks)
Workers often have control over their working hours, which can suit family responsibilities or other commitments.
Many informal workers are self-employed, allowing them to avoid strict employer rules.
4b) Explain the disadvantages of informal sector employment for a country. [4 marks]
✅ 1. Loss of tax revenue (2 marks)
Informal workers do not pay taxes, meaning the government collects less income to spend on public services like health and education.
✅ 2. Lack of regulation and enforcement (2 marks)
Many informal jobs operate without health, safety, or environmental oversight, contributing to poor working conditions, pollution, or even illegal activity.
Example: Informal waste pickers may handle hazardous materials without protection.
5a) Describe two characteristics of residential areas in urban settlements. [4 marks]
✅ 1. Variation in housing quality (2 marks)
Residential areas range from wealthy suburbs with large, well-built homes to informal settlements or slums with poor housing and limited infrastructure.
✅ 2. Differing access to services and amenities (2 marks)
High-income residential zones typically have better access to schools, healthcare, and clean water, while low-income areas may lack these services.
5b) Explain why housing quality may vary within an urban area. [5 marks]
✅ 1. Income inequality (1 mark)
Richer people can afford better housing, while poorer populations are forced to live in low-quality, overcrowded homes.
✅ 2. Land value and location (1 mark)
Housing near the CBD or coastal areas is more expensive, leading to higher-quality buildings in those areas compared to cheaper land on the outskirts.
✅ 3. Government policy and planning (1 mark)
Some governments build affordable housing, improving quality, while lack of planning leads to informal or illegal settlements.
✅ 4. Infrastructure investment (1 mark)
Well-funded neighbourhoods receive more infrastructure (e.g. electricity, sanitation), improving housing conditions.
✅ 5. Age of development (1 mark)
Older neighbourhoods may have outdated or decaying buildings, while new developments often have higher standards.
4b) Explain how the informal sector may affect the development of an urban area. [4 marks]
✅ 1. Contribution to the local economy (2 marks)
Although informal, these workers provide essential services, such as street food vendors, recycling, and affordable goods, which support daily urban life.
✅ 2. Strain on infrastructure and poor planning (2 marks)
Informal sector activities are often unregulated and spread into public spaces, causing congestion, waste accumulation, and sanitation issues.
Example: Market stalls or workshops on pavements may block walkways and roads.
5a) Describe two characteristics of the CBD (central business district) of a city. [4 marks]
✅ 1. High land values and vertical development (2 marks)
Land in the CBD is extremely expensive, encouraging the development of high-rise buildings to maximise space.
✅ 2. Accessibility and concentration of services (2 marks)
The CBD is highly accessible by public transport and is the focal point for commerce, administration, and retail, often housing banks, offices, and government buildings.
5b) Explain why land values are high in the CBD of a city. [5 marks]
✅ 1. Central location with high accessibility (1 mark)
The CBD is typically at the heart of transport networks, making it easily reachable by workers, shoppers, and visitors.
✅ 2. High demand for limited space (1 mark)
Many organisations want to locate in the CBD to access customers and clients, creating competition for space.
✅ 3. Economic importance of location (1 mark)
Businesses pay more to be in prime locations where they benefit from visibility, footfall, and prestige.
✅ 4. Limited land availability (1 mark)
Space in the CBD is often built up and already fully used, so the little available land is highly valuable.
✅ 5. Planning restrictions and redevelopment costs (1 mark)
Building or modifying structures in CBDs may require expensive permissions or demolition, increasing the overall value of available land.
5a) Describe two ways in which the land use of a city may change over time. [4 marks]
✅ 1. Redevelopment of old industrial areas into commercial or residential zones (2 marks)
As industries decline or move, former factory sites are redeveloped into office buildings, apartments, or shopping malls, transforming the land use.
✅ 2. Expansion into rural areas (urban sprawl) (2 marks)
Cities may grow outward, converting agricultural or forested land into residential suburbs, roads, or retail parks.
5b) Explain why land use in cities changes over time. [5 marks]
✅ 1. Economic change and deindustrialisation (1 mark)
As manufacturing declines and services grow, land once used for factories is repurposed for business or housing.
✅ 2. Population growth and urbanisation (1 mark)
Increased demand for housing, services, and infrastructure drives expansion and transformation of existing land use.
✅ 3. Transport improvements (1 mark)
New roads, railways, and public transport systems shift the focus of development, opening up new areas for urban growth.
✅ 4. Planning policies and regeneration schemes (1 mark)
Governments may introduce zoning laws, incentives, or redevelopment projects to improve or repurpose parts of the city.
✅ 5. Changes in lifestyle and technology (1 mark)
Trends like remote work, online shopping, or the rise of eco-friendly developments influence how land is used (e.g., more green spaces, fewer physical retail outlets).
