Paper 2 - Section A Mixed Flashcards
1(c) Explain the policies governments may use to lower fertility rates.
Providing access to family planning services – Governments promote the use of contraceptives by ensuring easy availability and affordability. This includes distributing birth control pills, condoms, and offering sterilization services.
Improving infant and maternal healthcare – When child mortality rates are high, parents often have more children as a precaution. Improving healthcare reduces infant mortality, thus reducing the need for large families.
Education and awareness campaigns – Educating people, particularly women, about the benefits of smaller families can help reduce fertility rates. Public campaigns, school curricula, and media initiatives play a role in changing attitudes toward family size.
Economic incentives and disincentives – Some governments introduce taxation policies, such as higher taxes for larger families or financial benefits for smaller families, to influence birth rates.
Female empowerment and gender equality – When women have access to education and employment opportunities, they tend to delay marriage and childbirth, reducing overall fertility rates.
Strict population control policies – Some countries have implemented direct policies like the “Stop at Two” campaign
Legalization of abortion and sterilization – Providing legal and safe abortion services and voluntary sterilization options can contribute to lowering fertility rates.
2(c) Explain how international migration can have negative impacts on source areas.
Brain drain and skill shortages – Many migrants from LICs/MICs are skilled professionals, such as doctors, engineers, and teachers. Their departure creates a talent gap in essential sectors, reducing the country’s development potential.
Labour shortages in key industries – Migration leads to a depletion of the workforce, particularly among young and economically active individuals. This can affect industries such as agriculture, healthcare, and education.
Economic dependency on remittances – While remittances provide financial support to families, they may create an overreliance on external income sources rather than local economic development.
Demographic imbalances – When a significant portion of the working-age population migrates, the remaining population consists mostly of dependents (children and elderly individuals). This increases the dependency ratio and puts pressure on social services.
Social and family disruptions – Migration often separates families, leading to emotional distress, weaker community bonds, and in some cases, increased divorce rates or social fragmentation.
Loss of cultural and human capital – Migration can erode traditional cultural values and community cohesion as people leave their hometowns for extended periods or permanently.
Reduced tax revenue and economic stagnation – With fewer working-age individuals, the government collects less tax revenue, limiting its ability to invest in infrastructure, education, and public services.
3(c) Explain the issues for the provision of services in rural areas.
Providing services in rural areas is challenging due to several factors:
Low population density – It is difficult to justify investing in expensive infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, and roads when the population is widely dispersed.
Financial constraints – Rural areas typically generate less tax revenue, leading to underfunded public services.
Limited accessibility – Many rural residents have to travel long distances to access essential services.
Workforce shortages – Professionals such as doctors, teachers, and skilled workers often prefer urban employment.
Risk of service closures – Schools, post offices, and medical facilities in rural areas often close due to declining demand.
1(c) Suggest two reasons why the proportion of the population aged 60 or over is low in some countries.
High death rates and low life expectancy – In some low-income countries (LICs), healthcare systems are underdeveloped, leading to high mortality rates at younger ages. Poor access to medical care, malnutrition, and diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria contribute to shorter lifespans.
Example: Many Sub-Saharan African countries have a low life expectancy, resulting in a small proportion of elderly people.
High birth rates and youthful population structure – Some countries experience high fertility rates, leading to a large proportion of young people in the population. This demographic pattern reduces the overall percentage of elderly people.
Example: Niger and Uganda have some of the highest birth rates in the world, which means a smaller proportion of their populations are elderly.
Poor healthcare and living conditions – Limited access to healthcare, unsafe drinking water, and malnutrition reduce life expectancy. Elderly people in such countries face higher mortality rates due to treatable conditions.
Example: In Afghanistan, poor medical facilities and long-term conflicts have led to low elderly populations.
Political instability, war, and conflict – In war-torn countries, many people die before reaching old age, either due to violence, forced displacement, or disruption of healthcare systems.
Example: Countries like Syria, Yemen, and South Sudan have seen large-scale loss of life, reducing the number of elderly people.
Out-migration of older individuals – In some cases, elderly people migrate to other countries for better living conditions, medical care, or to reunite with family.
Example: Some elderly populations in Eastern European countries move to Western Europe to access better healthcare.
2(c) Explain how international migration can have positive impacts on receiving/destination areas.
Increase in labor supply – Migrants fill labor shortages in various sectors, especially in construction, healthcare, and agriculture.
Example: The UK and Germany rely on migrant workers for seasonal agricultural jobs.
Reduction of skill shortages – Many migrants are highly skilled professionals, such as doctors, engineers, and IT specialists, helping destination countries address labor market gaps.
Example: The USA, Canada, and Australia attract skilled migrants through points-based immigration systems.
Economic growth through entrepreneurship – Migrants start businesses and invest in local economies, creating jobs.
Example: In the USA, over 40% of Fortune 500 companies were founded by immigrants or their children.
Cultural diversity and social benefits – Migration brings new cultural perspectives, enriching societies through food, music, and traditions.
Example: The multicultural communities in London and New York showcase the benefits of cultural diversity.
Higher birth rates and population rejuvenation – In aging societies, migrants help increase the birth rate, balancing population decline.
Example: In Germany and Japan, migrants are seen as a solution to aging populations and labor shortages.
3(c) Explain two planning issues in urban areas in LICs/MICs.
Housing and informal settlements (shanty towns) – Many LICs and MICs face housing shortages, leading to rapid growth of slums.
Example: Mumbai’s Dharavi slum has poor sanitation and overcrowding.
Inadequate infrastructure and utilities – Many cities lack proper roads, clean water, and electricity, creating public health and economic problems.
Example: Lagos, Nigeria struggles with poor waste management and unreliable electricity.
1(c) Explain why birth rates may vary with the income of the parents.
Low income → High birth rates – In low-income families, children are seen as economic assets who can work and contribute to household income or support parents in old age. Additionally, limited access to contraceptives and education can lead to higher birth rates.
Example: In many LICs (e.g., Niger), families have many children to help with farm work and provide financial support in the future.
High income → Low birth rates – In high-income families, raising children is expensive due to the costs of education, healthcare, and housing. Women in wealthier families also tend to prioritize education and careers, leading to fewer children and later childbirth.
Example: In HICs (e.g., Japan and Germany), where living costs are high, birth rates have declined as couples have fewer children.
High income → High birth rates in some cases – Wealthy families who can afford childcare, healthcare, and schooling may choose to have larger families if they value having multiple children. However, this is less common in HICs.
2(c) Explain how both distance and cost can influence internal migration.
- Distance as a Barrier to Migration
The greater the distance, the less likely people are to migrate because:
Moving further is more expensive (transportation costs increase).
Migrants know less about distant areas, making them hesitant to move.
Families and social ties discourage long-distance migration.
Example: In Brazil, most migrants settle in neighboring regions rather than distant areas like the Amazon. - Cost as a Limiting Factor
Migration is expensive because of:
Travel costs – Bus, train, or flight tickets can be costly for low-income migrants.
Housing costs – Many people avoid moving to expensive cities due to high rent.
Job uncertainty – Some migrants cannot afford to relocate without a guaranteed job.
Example: In India, many rural migrants move to cheaper cities rather than expensive metropolitan areas like Mumbai.
Suggest the factors which may have attracted retailing to an out-of-town location.
Good transport links – The retail park is located near a main road, allowing easy access for customers and delivery vehicles.
Availability of large space for retail units – The location offers large plots of land, enabling the development of big stores, parking lots, and warehouses.
Proximity to residential areas – Retail parks are often near suburban communities where people need shopping facilities.
Lower land costs compared to city centers – Retailers prefer out-of-town locations where land is cheaper, allowing for larger stores and parking spaces.
3(c) Explain the issues for urban areas resulting from the development of out-of-town retail parks.
Decline of city center businesses – Retail parks attract shoppers away from city centers, causing small businesses to close.
Example: In the UK, many high streets have struggled due to competition from retail parks like Bluewater.
Traffic congestion and pollution – Out-of-town retail parks increase car dependency, leading to higher emissions and congestion near highways.
Example: Large shopping centers near London have caused severe weekend traffic jams.
Job displacement in city centers – As customers move to out-of-town retail parks, jobs in city center shops are lost.
Environmental degradation – New developments result in deforestation, loss of green spaces, and increased flooding risk due to land clearance.
Example: USA’s expansion of suburban retail parks has contributed to urban sprawl and loss of farmland.
1(c) Explain why birth rates are decreasing in many MICs.
Increased Use of Contraceptives and Family Planning – Many MICs have improved access to contraceptives and reproductive health services, allowing families to control the number and timing of births.
Example: In Brazil, government-supported family planning programs have contributed to a decline in birth rates.
Greater Education and Empowerment of Women – As more women receive education and enter the workforce, they tend to delay marriage and childbirth, leading to lower birth rates.
Example: In Mexico, more women are prioritizing education and careers, leading to smaller family sizes.
Economic Factors and Cost of Raising Children – In many MICs, the cost of raising children (education, healthcare, housing) has increased, making families opt for fewer children.
Declining Infant Mortality Rates – Improvements in healthcare and nutrition mean that fewer children die at an early age, reducing the need for families to have many children as a survival strategy.
Example: In India, lower infant mortality rates have contributed to smaller family sizes.
Urbanization and Changing Lifestyles – As more people move to urban areas, where space is limited and living costs are high, they tend to have fewer children.
Example: In Turkey, urbanization has led to a cultural shift toward smaller families.
2(c) Explain how the physical environment can act as an obstacle to international migration.
Rivers and Seas as Barriers – Large bodies of water can prevent or delay migration, requiring boats, resources, and safe passage.
Example: Many migrants attempt dangerous sea crossings from Libya to Italy across the Mediterranean Sea, often facing shipwrecks and drownings.
Mountain Ranges and Harsh Terrain – High-altitude mountains or dense forests can block or slow migration.
Example: The Himalayas act as a natural barrier for migration between Nepal, India, and China.
Deserts and Extreme Climates – Deserts lack water and shelter, making migration risky.
Example: Migrants crossing the Sahara Desert face extreme heat, dehydration, and lack of food.
Natural Hazards and Disaster-Prone Areas – Some areas are prone to earthquakes, hurricanes, or floods, discouraging migration.
Example: Coastal regions in Bangladesh are at risk of flooding, discouraging settlement.
3(c) Explain the challenges caused by the changing central business district (CBD).
The changing nature of CBDs creates urban, economic, and environmental challenges:
Decline of Traditional Retailers – As big brands close due to online competition, vacant stores create economic decline and unemployment in CBDs.
Example: Many US city centers have seen retail closures, leading to increased unemployment.
Increased Property Costs – Rising property values make rent unaffordable for small businesses, limiting diversity in retail.
Example: In Hong Kong, high rent costs have forced out local businesses.
Traffic Congestion and Pollution – Increased urban activity in CBDs leads to traffic jams and air pollution.
Example: London’s Oxford Street suffers from extreme congestion due to high commercial activity.
Balancing Conservation with Development – Governments struggle to modernize CBDs while preserving historic buildings and landmarks.
1(b) Outline two problems for a country caused by a low population growth rate.
Aging Population and Increased Dependency Ratio
A low population growth rate often leads to an aging population, meaning there are fewer working-age individuals to support the elderly.
Economic impact: Increased pension and healthcare costs strain government budgets.
Example: Japan, where a shrinking workforce supports a growing elderly population, leading to increased tax burdens on younger generations.
Labor Shortages and Economic Decline
With fewer young people entering the workforce, there is a shortage of workers, affecting industries such as healthcare, manufacturing, and services.
Economic impact: Lower productivity, slower GDP growth, and difficulty in sustaining economic development.
Example: Germany has experienced labor shortages in various industries, leading to policies encouraging immigration to fill workforce gaps.
1(c) Explain how low rates of natural increase of population may be linked to high levels of development.
Higher Education Levels and Career Prioritization
In developed countries, higher education and career opportunities often lead to delayed marriages and childbirth, reducing birth rates.
Example: Many women in Sweden and Canada pursue higher education and careers before starting families, contributing to lower natural increase rates.
Improved Healthcare and Lower Infant Mortality
Better healthcare services and low infant mortality rates reduce the need for families to have many children.
Example: In France, access to universal healthcare and maternal support programs has led to stable but lower birth rates.
Urbanization and High Living Costs
In urban areas, where most people in developed countries live, the high cost of housing, childcare, and education discourages large families.
Example: Singapore’s high cost of living has led to declining fertility rates despite government efforts to encourage births.
Availability of Contraceptives and Family Planning
Widespread access to contraception allows couples to control family size, reducing birth rates.
Example: The Netherlands has a low natural increase due to strong reproductive health services and family planning programs.
Changing Social Norms and Gender Equality
In developed societies, there is less social pressure to have large families, and more women choose child-free or smaller family lifestyles.
Example: Japan has seen a cultural shift where many young adults delay or avoid marriage, reducing birth rates.
2(b) Suggest two ways in which source regions benefit from international migration.
Remittances Boost the Economy
Migrants send money back home, helping families and stimulating economic growth.
Example: The Philippines receives billions in remittances from overseas workers, contributing to national GDP.
Reduction in Unemployment and Resource Pressure
Emigration reduces job competition, easing youth unemployment and improving living conditions.
Example: Mexico, where migration to the USA reduces local unemployment in rural areas.
2(c) Explain how international borders can be obstacles to migration.
Strict Immigration Laws and Visa Requirements
Many countries have complex visa processes and immigration restrictions, limiting entry.
Example: The USA’s visa system makes it difficult for low-skilled workers to migrate legally.
Physical Barriers (Fences, Walls, and Natural Features)
Borders often have physical barriers like walls, fences, deserts, and mountains that hinder migration.
Example: The US-Mexico border wall and the Mediterranean Sea for African migrants to Europe.
High Travel Costs and Corruption
Migrants may struggle to afford transportation and legal fees, while corruption at borders may further complicate movement.
Example: Syrian refugees often rely on smugglers to cross borders due to expensive legal routes.
Cultural and Language Barriers
Different languages, customs, and social attitudes make migration more challenging.
Example: Migrants from the Middle East to Europe face difficulties due to language barriers and cultural differences.
3(b) Suggest two problems for a country caused by the rapid growth of its largest city.
Overcrowding and Housing Shortages
As populations in large cities grow rapidly, there is insufficient housing, leading to slums and informal settlements.
Example: Mumbai, India, where millions live in overcrowded slums like Dharavi.
Traffic Congestion and Pollution
Larger populations result in increased vehicle usage, leading to traffic jams, air pollution, and poor public transport systems.
Example: Jakarta, Indonesia, faces severe congestion and smog due to rapid urban growth.
3(c) Explain how a large city can become classified as a ‘world city’.
Economic Influence and Headquarters of Global Companies
A city with major banks, financial markets, and headquarters of multinational corporations is often considered a world city.
Example: New York City is home to Wall Street and the United Nations Headquarters.
International Transport Hubs and Connectivity
Cities with major international airports, ports, and transport infrastructure are considered world cities.
Example: London Heathrow Airport connects London to global markets and tourism.
Cultural and Media Influence
Cities known for fashion, film, arts, and global media networks gain world city status.
Example: Paris is a fashion capital and home to global media networks.
Political and Diplomatic Importance
Hosting major global summits, embassies, and international organizations contributes to world city classification.
Example: Brussels is the political center of the European Union.
1(b) Suggest two reasons for an increase in life expectancy
Improvements in Medical Infrastructure
Expansion of hospitals, clinics, and healthcare facilities has increased access to treatment.
Example: Kenya has seen a rise in vaccination programs and maternal healthcare services, reducing infant and child mortality rates.
Better Disease Control and Treatment
Advancements in treating infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis have contributed to longer life expectancy.
Example: Increased distribution of antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV patients in Kenya has improved survival rates.
1(c) Explain how low life expectancy of the population may be linked to low levels of development.
Limited Access to Healthcare Services
Poor countries often lack adequate healthcare infrastructure, leading to high mortality rates from preventable diseases.
Example: In Chad, a lack of doctors and hospitals results in high death rates from treatable conditions like malaria.
Poor Nutrition and Food Insecurity
Malnourishment weakens immune systems, making people more vulnerable to diseases and reducing life expectancy.
Example: In Sudan, food shortages due to drought and conflict lead to high child mortality rates.
High Infant Mortality Rates
In less developed countries, limited maternal healthcare leads to high infant and child mortality, lowering the average life expectancy.
Example: Afghanistan has one of the highest infant mortality rates due to poor medical facilities and unsafe childbirth conditions.
Lack of Sanitation and Clean Water
In many low-income countries (LICs), people lack access to clean drinking water, leading to waterborne diseases such as cholera and dysentery.
Example: In Bangladesh, contaminated water sources cause frequent disease outbreaks, reducing life expectancy.
Limited Economic Resources and Infrastructure
Governments with low GDPs struggle to fund public health programs, impacting healthcare quality and availability.
Example: In Haiti, a weak economy has resulted in poor healthcare and education services, contributing to low life expectancy.
2(b) Suggest two pull factors why internally displaced people may return to their source area.
Improvement in Safety and Security
If the conflict or disaster that forced migration ends, people feel safe returning home.
Example: Many Syrian refugees returned home after ceasefires in certain areas.
Family and Cultural Connections
Strong ties to family, land, and community often encourage displaced individuals to go back.
Example: In Iraq, displaced people returned to Mosul after the city was rebuilt post-ISIS occupation.
2(c) Explain how forced internal migration may have negative impacts on receiving/destination areas.
Increased Pressure on Public Services
A sudden influx of migrants overwhelms schools, hospitals, and water supply systems.
Example: South Sudanese refugees in Ugandan settlements have strained local resources, leading to shortages.
Unemployment and Competition for Jobs
Migrants increase job competition, which can lead to unemployment and resentment among locals.
Example: In Colombia, Venezuelan migrants compete with locals for low-wage jobs, causing tensions.
Overcrowding and Housing Shortages
Many migrants settle in slums or informal settlements, leading to poor living conditions and increased disease risk.
Example: In Dhaka, Bangladesh, slums have grown due to internal displacement from flooding.
Social and Cultural Tensions
Migrants may face discrimination and social exclusion due to cultural or religious differences.
Example: In Kenya, tensions arose between locals and Somali refugees in Dadaab camp.
3(b) Outline two benefits of megacities for the provision of services.
Economies of Scale in Service Provision
Large populations make public transport, healthcare, and education more efficient and cost-effective.
Example: Tokyo’s subway system serves millions daily, reducing transportation costs per passenger.
Higher Investment in Infrastructure and Innovation
Megacities attract more investment in hospitals, schools, and utilities, leading to better services.
Example: Shanghai’s smart city initiatives have improved energy efficiency and waste management.
3(c) Explain the challenges of providing either power infrastructure or transport infrastructure for large cities.
Traffic Congestion and Overcrowding
Roads and public transport systems struggle to accommodate large populations, causing daily traffic jams.
Example: Jakarta, Indonesia, experiences severe congestion due to rapid urbanization.
High Costs of Infrastructure Development
Building and maintaining subways, highways, and bridges requires massive financial investment.
Example: London’s Crossrail project faced delays and budget overruns due to high costs.
Land Scarcity and Urban Space Constraints
Expanding transport networks is difficult due to limited available land in already densely populated areas.
Example: New York City’s subway system struggles to expand due to high real estate prices.
Environmental Concerns and Pollution
Air pollution from vehicles and deforestation for new roads contribute to environmental degradation.
Example: Delhi, India, suffers from extreme air pollution due to high vehicle emissions.
Rapid Population Growth Outpacing Infrastructure Expansion
Cities grow faster than transport infrastructure, leading to overcrowded buses and trains.
Example: Lagos, Nigeria, has an underdeveloped transport system compared to its population growth rate.
1(b) Suggest two reasons why the TFR has decreased since 1960.
Increased Use of Contraception and Family Planning
Greater access to birth control methods and family planning education has allowed families to control their fertility rates.
Example: In Brazil, the widespread availability of contraceptives and government-backed family planning campaigns have contributed to the decline in TFR.
Greater Female Education and Workforce Participation
More women pursuing higher education and careers means that they delay childbirth and have fewer children.
Example: In Brazil, more women are enrolling in universities and entering professional fields, leading to a shift in societal norms and reduced birth rates.
1(c) Explain why a high TFR may cause problems for a country.
Increased Strain on Public Services
A high TFR leads to larger young populations, increasing demand for education, healthcare, and social services.
Example: In Nigeria, a high birth rate has put immense pressure on schools and healthcare facilities, making it difficult to provide quality services.
Youth Unemployment and Economic Struggles
A rapid increase in young people creates more job seekers than job opportunities, leading to high unemployment rates and poverty.
Example: India’s large youth population struggles with unemployment due to limited job opportunities, affecting economic stability.
Food and Resource Shortages
More people require more food, water, and housing, straining available resources and leading to higher costs of living.
Example: Ethiopia faces frequent food crises due to high population growth and limited agricultural productivity.
Increased Risk of Political Instability
Large youthful populations with limited economic opportunities can lead to social unrest and political instability.
Example: Egypt’s youth-driven protests during the Arab Spring were partly fueled by unemployment and economic hardship.
Environmental Degradation and Urban Overcrowding
A growing population increases pollution, deforestation, and strain on infrastructure.
Example: In Jakarta, Indonesia, overpopulation has led to severe traffic congestion and poor air quality.
2(c) Explain why the rate of rural-urban migration often varies with the age of the migrant in LICs/MICs.
Young Adults Migrate for Education and Jobs
Young people leave rural areas for universities and employment opportunities in cities.
Example: In India, many young people migrate from villages to cities like Mumbai and Delhi for education and IT jobs.
Middle-Aged People Move for Family and Stability
Some middle-aged adults migrate to provide better opportunities for their children, or because of job promotions.
Example: In Brazil, middle-aged professionals move from rural areas to São Paulo for career growth.
Older Adults and Retirees Prefer Rural Living
Many elderly individuals return to rural areas for a quieter lifestyle, lower cost of living, and family connections.
Example: In China, elderly migrants return to their ancestral villages after retirement.
3(c) Explain why population numbers may increase in outer urban areas of cities in LICs/MICs.
Expansion of Informal Settlements (Shanty Towns)
High rural-urban migration leads to the growth of slums and informal housing on the outskirts of cities.
Example: Lagos, Nigeria, has seen rapid expansion of slums due to rural migration.
Higher Birth Rates Among Migrants
Many urban migrants have larger families, increasing population numbers in outer areas.
Example: In Dhaka, Bangladesh, birth rates are higher in low-income urban districts.
Cheaper Land and Housing Costs
The high cost of living in city centers forces many families to move to the outskirts.
Example: In Mexico City, new developments in outer urban areas attract middle-class families.
Relocation of Industries and Employment Centers
Many factories and businesses move to the urban periphery, attracting workers and their families.
Example: In Shanghai, China, companies have relocated to outer districts, increasing suburban populations.
Government Housing and Infrastructure Projects
Some governments build housing and public services in suburban areas to ease congestion in city centers.
Example: In India, planned cities like Navi Mumbai were developed to accommodate urban expansion.
1(b) Explain why a youth dependency could cause problems for the country in the future.
High Youth Dependency Ratio
A large proportion of young people means greater pressure on education, healthcare, and childcare services.
Example: Nigeria struggles to provide enough schools and medical care for its youthful population.
Unemployment and Job Shortages
A rapidly growing working-age population leads to fierce competition for jobs, causing high unemployment rates.
Example: In Kenya, youth unemployment is a major issue, leading to poverty and social unrest.
Risk of Political and Social Unrest
A young, unemployed population may become frustrated, leading to protests, crime, and instability.
Example: The Arab Spring uprisings were driven by youth dissatisfaction with economic conditions.
1(c) Explain why birth rates are falling in some HICs.
Increased Female Education and Employment
More women pursue higher education and careers, leading to delayed childbirth and fewer children.
Example: In Germany, women are having fewer children due to career priorities.
High Cost of Raising Children
Housing, education, and childcare are expensive, discouraging large families.
Example: In Japan, high living costs contribute to one of the lowest birth rates globally.
Widespread Availability of Contraception and Family Planning
Access to birth control and reproductive healthcare allows people to plan smaller families.
Example: In Sweden, free contraception and sex education contribute to low birth rates.
Changing Social Norms and Lifestyle Choices
Marriage and parenthood are no longer priorities for many young adults in HICs.
Example: In South Korea, an increasing number of young adults choose not to marry or have children.
Suggest why the number of Syrian refugees is a bigger problem for Lebanon than for Sweden.
Higher Proportion of Refugees in Lebanon’s Population
Syrian refugees make up 17% of Lebanon’s population compared to only 1% in Sweden.
Impact: This places greater strain on Lebanon’s infrastructure, jobs, and resources.
Lower Economic Capacity to Support Refugees
Lebanon’s GNI is significantly lower than Sweden’s, making it harder to provide financial support and services.
Example: Lebanon struggles to fund education, healthcare, and housing for refugees, whereas Sweden has stronger welfare systems.
Geographical Proximity and Sudden Influx
Lebanon is closer to Syria, receiving a rapid and overwhelming influx of refugees.
Example: Many Syrian refugees live in makeshift camps with poor sanitation in Lebanon.
2(c) Explain why distance influences refugee flows.
Higher Costs and Travel Challenges for Long-Distance Migration
Longer distances require more money for transportation, visas, and living expenses, making short-distance migration more common.
Example: Many Syrian refugees settle in nearby Turkey and Jordan rather than traveling to distant countries.
Cultural and Linguistic Barriers Increase with Distance
Refugees prefer destinations where language and cultural norms are familiar to ease adaptation.
Example: Afghan refugees often move to Pakistan and Iran, where they share linguistic and religious ties.
Legal and Immigration Barriers in Distant Countries
Countries further away often have stricter immigration policies, making it harder for refugees to enter.
Example: The EU-Turkey migration agreement limits the number of Syrian refugees entering Europe.
Availability of Information and Networks
People move where they have family or community support, which is usually in nearby countries.
Example: Many Rohingya refugees from Myanmar flee to Bangladesh, where they already have relatives.
3(c) Explain why an urban area might suffer from long-term environmental decline.
Pollution from Traffic and Industry
Heavy vehicle emissions and industrial activities degrade air and water quality.
Neglect and Poor Maintenance of Infrastructure
Aging buildings, roads, and sewage systems deteriorate over time without proper investment.
Example: In Detroit, USA, economic decline led to urban decay and abandoned buildings.
Overpopulation and Resource Depletion
Rapid urban growth can lead to excessive resource consumption, making the city unsustainable.
Example: Mexico City struggles with water shortages due to overuse and climate change.
Outmigration and Declining Investment
As wealthier people move away, cities lose tax revenue, leading to fewer funds for maintenance.
Example: In Glasgow, Scotland, post-industrial decline led to urban decay and high unemployment.
1(b) Suggest two economic consequences of low food security.
Higher Food Prices and Inflation
When food is scarce, demand increases, leading to rising prices.
This makes food less affordable for low-income families, increasing poverty and malnutrition.
Example: In Venezuela, food shortages caused extreme inflation, making basic goods unaffordable.
Lower Workforce Productivity and Economic Decline
Malnutrition weakens workers, reducing productivity and economic output.
Countries with food insecurity struggle with slow economic growth due to a weaker labor force.
Example: In Ethiopia, undernourished workers contribute to low agricultural and industrial productivity.
1(c) Explain two ways technology can increase food production in an area.
Use of Genetically Modified (GM) Crops
GM crops are engineered to resist pests, diseases, and drought, improving yields.
They allow higher food production with fewer inputs like pesticides and fertilizers.
Example: India’s Bt cotton has increased crop yields and reduced pesticide use.
Drip Irrigation and Precision Farming
Drip irrigation delivers water directly to plant roots, reducing waste and improving growth.
Precision farming uses satellites, AI, and sensors to optimize planting, fertilizing, and watering.
Example: Israel’s drip irrigation technology has helped grow crops in desert regions.
2(c) Explain why people migrate from one continent to another.
Better Employment Opportunities
People migrate to wealthier continents for higher wages and better job prospects.
Example: Many Indian IT professionals move to the USA and Canada for better careers.
Political Instability and War
Refugees flee conflict zones seeking safety and asylum in stable regions.
Example: Syrian refugees have migrated to Europe due to civil war.
Educational Opportunities
Students migrate for higher-quality universities and education systems.
Example: Chinese students migrate to the UK and USA for university education.
Family Reunification and Social Networks
Many migrants move to join family members already settled in another continent.
Example: Many Mexicans migrate to the USA due to family ties
3(b) Suggest two benefits to people in the surrounding rural areas of the expansion of urban areas
More Employment Opportunities
Urban expansion brings new industries, construction jobs, and service sector growth, benefiting rural workers.
Example: In India, urban expansion in Chennai has provided rural migrants with jobs in factories and retail sectors.
Improved Infrastructure and Services
As cities expand, better roads, hospitals, and schools are built, benefiting nearby rural populations.
Example: In China, expanding cities improve transport and healthcare for rural residents.
3(c) Explain two negative social impacts of counterurbanisation on rural settlements.
Loss of Community and Traditional Culture
Wealthy urban migrants may replace local traditions with modern lifestyles, changing rural culture.
Example: In rural England, counterurbanisation has led to fewer local businesses and a decline in rural traditions.
Rising Housing Prices
Demand from urban migrants increases land and property prices, making housing unaffordable for locals.
Example: In France, counterurbanisation has driven up property prices in rural areas, making it hard for young locals to buy homes.
1(b) Outline two environmental causes of food shortages.
Drought and Water Scarcity
Lack of rainfall leads to crop failures and soil degradation, reducing food production.
Example: Somalia suffers from frequent droughts, leading to food shortages and famine.
Floods and Natural Disasters
Heavy rainfall and floods destroy crops and agricultural land, reducing food supply.
Example: In Bangladesh, monsoon floods regularly damage rice crops, causing food insecurity.
1(c) Explain two social consequences for people of food shortages.
Malnutrition and Health Issues
A lack of food leads to malnutrition, stunted growth, and weakened immune systems.
Example: In Sudan, food shortages have increased cases of child malnutrition and diseases.
Migration and Displacement
People migrate in search of food and better living conditions, leading to refugee crises and urban overcrowding.
Example: Ethiopians have migrated to urban areas due to persistent food shortages in rural regions.
2(c) Explain the negative economic impacts on the source area of the loss of population as refugees.
Loss of Skilled Labor and Workforce
Many refugees are young, educated workers, reducing economic productivity in the source country.
Example: Syria has lost a large number of skilled professionals, weakening its economy.
Decline in Agricultural and Industrial Output
Farmers and factory workers leaving as refugees reduce food production and industrial growth.
Example: South Sudan faces reduced crop yields due to the loss of farmers.
Lower Tax Revenues and Economic Growth
Fewer working-age people result in less tax collection, limiting government spending on infrastructure and services.
Example: Venezuela struggles with reduced public services due to mass emigration.
Increased Dependency Ratio
The remaining population is mostly elderly and children, putting pressure on healthcare and social services.
Example: Afghanistan’s high dependency ratio makes economic recovery difficult.
Declining Business and Investment
Businesses close due to fewer customers, discouraging investment and slowing economic growth.
Example: Many businesses shut down in war-torn Syria, reducing employment opportunities.
3(b) Suggest two negative environmental impacts on the surrounding rural areas of the expansion of the city of Palmas.
Deforestation and Habitat Loss
Expanding cities clear forests, reducing biodiversity and disrupting ecosystems.
Example: Amazon rainforest deforestation around Brazilian cities like Palmas threatens wildlife.
Water and Air Pollution
Increased waste, industrial pollution, and vehicle emissions degrade air and water quality.
Example: Palmas’ urban growth has increased water contamination from industrial runoff.
3(c) Explain the impacts of counterurbanisation on the competition for space in rural settlements.
Higher Property Prices and Land Costs
Wealthy urban migrants increase demand for housing, making properties too expensive for locals.
Example: In rural England, local young people struggle to afford homes due to rising costs.
Expansion of Infrastructure and New Services
Increased migration leads to more housing, roads, and commercial developments, reducing land for agriculture.
Example: France’s rural villages have seen new housing developments replacing farmland.
1(c) Suggest reasons why the improvement in nourishment levels for Africa has been slow.
Rapid Population Growth
Africa’s high birth rates increase food demand, making it difficult to keep up with food production.
Example: Nigeria’s fast-growing population has led to higher food demand and shortages.
Frequent Climatic Hazards
Droughts, floods, and locust invasions reduce food supply, causing persistent undernourishment.
Example: Somalia experiences recurrent droughts, limiting food production.
Lack of Agricultural Investment
Many African countries lack modern farming techniques, leading to low crop yields.
Example: Ethiopia’s reliance on subsistence farming has slowed agricultural development.
Economic and Political Challenges
Poverty and weak economies make it hard for governments to invest in food security programs.
Example: Zimbabwe’s economic crisis has worsened food shortages.
Conflict and Social Unrest
Civil wars and terrorism disrupt food production and distribution.
Example: The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) struggles with food shortages due to ongoing conflict.
2(c) Suggest why more males aged 25–44 migrate than females aged 25–44.
Men Often Migrate for Work Opportunities
Many jobs that require migration (e.g., construction, manual labor, engineering) are male-dominated.
Example: Many South Asian men migrate to the Middle East for construction jobs.
Cultural Expectations and Family Responsibilities
In some societies, men are expected to be the primary earners, while women stay home.
Example: In India, men are more likely to migrate for work, while women stay to care for children.
Higher Education and Career Advancements
More men migrate for career growth, especially in business and technology sectors.
Example: Many IT professionals from India move to the USA for higher salaries.
Migration Journeys Can Be Riskier for Women
Women face higher risks of exploitation, trafficking, and abuse, making migration more difficult.
Example: Many female refugees from Syria face dangerous conditions while migrating.
Government Immigration Policies Favor Male-Dominated Jobs
Many work visas and labor migration programs are targeted toward male-heavy industries.
Example: Saudi Arabia’s labor policies prioritize male workers in construction and oil industries.
3(c) Explain why some manufacturing stays at its original urban location rather than relocating to a new site.
Cost of Relocation is High
Moving machinery, workers, and infrastructure is expensive, so some industries stay in their original location.
Example: Many factories in Manchester, UK remain despite urban expansion.
Access to Skilled Labor
Some industries rely on local, experienced workers who cannot be easily replaced.
Example: Textile industries in Italy remain in traditional urban areas due to skilled workers.
Good Transport Links
Some urban sites have excellent road, rail, and port access, making them ideal for distribution.
Example: London’s industrial areas remain valuable due to their proximity to ports and transport hubs.
Government Incentives and Subsidies
Governments may offer tax breaks or subsidies to keep industries in certain locations.
Example: The USA provides tax incentives to industries that stay in urban manufacturing zones.
1(c) Suggest why an increase in calorie consumption per person per day may create problems for a country.
Higher Rates of Obesity and Health Issues
Excessive calorie intake can lead to obesity, diabetes, and heart disease, increasing healthcare costs.
Example: The USA has one of the highest obesity rates, partly due to high calorie consumption.
Strain on Healthcare Services
More diet-related illnesses mean higher demand for medical care and government spending on healthcare.
Example: China has seen a rise in diabetes cases, increasing pressure on hospitals.
Increased Demand for Food Supply
More calorie consumption increases food demand, which may strain agricultural resources.
Example: Growing meat consumption in Brazil has led to greater environmental impact from livestock farming.
Higher Food Prices and Economic Costs
More food consumption can lead to inflation in food prices, making food less affordable for low-income groups.
Example: Rising food demand in India has led to higher grain prices.
Environmental Impact from Agricultural Expansion
Increased food production may lead to deforestation, overfishing, and water shortages.
Example: Amazon rainforest deforestation has been linked to increased soybean production for livestock feed.
2(b) Suggest two reasons for the difference in percentage between males and females moving for work in India
Cultural Expectations and Traditional Gender Roles
In India, men are often expected to be the main earners, while women are expected to focus on family responsibilities.
Example: Many Indian women migrate due to marriage, not for work.
Limited Job Opportunities for Women
Many industries prefer hiring men, and women may have fewer employment opportunities.
Example: In rural India, most factory and construction jobs are male-dominated, restricting female migration for work.
2(c) Explain why improvements in communications in an area may increase the rate of internal migration.
Better Awareness of Job Opportunities
Improved internet access and mobile phones allow people to learn about jobs in cities, increasing migration.
Example: Job recruitment apps in India help rural workers find employment in urban areas.
Easier Contact with Family Members
Migrants can stay connected with their families, making it easier for them to relocate.
Example: Nepali workers in India regularly send updates and money home via mobile banking.
More Efficient Transport Systems
Better roads, railways, and public transport make migration faster and more affordable.
Example: China’s high-speed rail network has encouraged rural-urban migration.
Encouragement of Chain Migration
When people see others successfully migrating, they are more likely to follow.
Example: Many Bangladeshi migrants move to Dhaka after hearing from relatives already settled there.
3(b) Suggest why out-of-town locations are suitable for modern-day manufacturing.
Large Flat Land for Expansion
The area provides ample space for factories, warehouses, and parking.
Example: Many car factories in Brazil are built in flat, open areas.
Good Transport Infrastructure
The site has highway access, allowing easy movement of raw materials and finished products.
Example: Automobile factories near São Paulo, Brazil, benefit from good road networks.
Distance from Residential Areas
The location reduces pollution and congestion in urban areas, making it more sustainable.
Example: Industrial zones in Mexico are often built away from cities to minimize pollution impacts.
3(c) Explain why services might locate in the central business district (CBD) of urban areas.
High Customer Footfall
The CBD attracts large numbers of people, increasing potential customers for services.
Example: Retail stores in London’s Oxford Street benefit from heavy foot traffic.
Good Transport Links
Roads, trains, and buses make the CBD accessible for workers and customers.
Example: New York’s Wall Street is well connected by subways and buses.
Proximity to Other Businesses
Companies benefit from being close to banks, legal firms, and corporate offices.
Example: Many financial services cluster in Singapore’s CBD for easy collaboration.
Prestige and High Visibility
Locating in the CBD enhances a company’s image and attracts high-profile clients.
Example: Luxury brands like Louis Vuitton prefer CBD locations for visibility
