Paper 2: 2018 Flashcards
Define the term ‘target population’. (1)
The group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying.
Explain two weaknesses of conducting research on-line. (3+3)
Credit could be given for:
Problems with consent: many people are used to accepting ‘terms and conditions’ on-line
without reading them; this means participants may also do something similar with the
details in the consent form and therefore not understand the aim and procedures involved
with the research.
Limited methods: most on-line research uses surveys, questionnaires and other selfreport methods. There are few opportunities for experimentation and so the research may
be subject to problems such as social desirability bias.
Identification: Researchers cannot be sure that the people completing the on-line research
are whom they claim to be. A piece of research aimed at adolescents might be completed
by a thirty year old.
Sketch the following distribution curves:
Normal distribution (1)
Distribution curve is sketched appropriately.
Sketch the following distribution curves:
Positive skew (1)
Distribution curve is sketched appropriately.
Sketch the following distribution curves:
Negative skew (1)
Distribution curve is sketched appropriately.
Describe how brain scans have been used in psychology. (6)
Credit could be given for:
In MRI, the patient is placed inside a large circular magnet that causes the hydrogen
atoms in the body to move. When the magnet is turned off, these revert to their original
positions, producing an electromagnetic signal that is translated by the computer into
pictures of brain tissue.
In PET, a radioactive tracer is combined with a sugar (flurodeoxyglucose); a hormone
(norepinephrine) or a protein (Cyclo RGDfC). A radioactive tracer is injected into the
participant/patient awaiting the scan. After a period of time the patient/participant are
placed into a computer scanner. The positrons smash into electrons releasing gamma
rays, this emission is detected by the scanner. The detected emissions are plotted the
varying levels of activity in the brain are recorded, sometimes a 3-D plot is produced.
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using brain scans in psychology. (6) Advantages:
Credit could be given for:
Advantages/Strengths
Allows for objective assessment of brain structure/function.
Allows investigation of live brains, rather than waiting for post mortem.
MRI is best suited for cases when a patient is to undergo the examination several times
successively in the short term, because, unlike PET, it does not expose the patient to
the hazards of radiation.
PET scans reveal chemical information that is not available with other
imaging techniques.
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using brain scans in psychology. (6)
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages/Weaknesses
Scans take a long time and can be uncomfortable for patients, not good for those with
claustrophobia.
These are extremely costly techniques and therefore not easily available for research.
With PET, the patient has to be injected with a radioactive substance, the
technique can be used only a few times.
Only a range of activities can be investigated, due to limitations of being stuck in a
machine.
Critically assess whether non-participant observations are more appropriate than participant
observations in psychology. (6)
Credit could be given for:
Comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of non-participant observations vs.
participant observations
Understanding/insight into data collected may be higher in participant observation than
in non-participant observation.
Researcher might be overwhelmed with data and have more difficulty recording data in
participant observation than non-participant observation.
Researcher may retain greater levels of objectivity in non-participant observation than in
participant observation.
Evaluate the methodology used by Kohlberg (1968) in his research ‘The child as a moral
philosopher’. (6)
Credit could be given for:
Use of interviews:
Allowed Kohlberg to ask supplementary questions if necessary.
Investigating children, so they may be less able to complete written self-reports
methods.
May be more susceptible to researcher bias.
Use of hypothetical moral dilemmas:
Examining what the boys say they would do not what they actually would do.
May not be relevant to the participant’s life, e.g. can a 10 year old boy really relate to the
Heinz scenario?
Allowed for an objective comparison across the sample group.
Different hypothetical moral dilemmas used with different participants; different
questions used with children of different ages.
Use of longitudinal method:
Allowed Kohlberg to track the actual development of the boys over 12 years.
More likely to suffer from sample attrition.
Use of cross-cultural comparison:
Allows assessment if moral development is universal or culturally specific.
Hindered by techniques developed from one culture.
Differences in questions asked to those in Taiwan.
Evaluate the sample used by Kohlberg (1968) in his research ‘The child as a moral
philosopher’. (6)
Credit could be given for:
Sample age ranged from 10-28 during research
Youngest boy was 10 at the start of the research, little evidence base for how moral
development occurs before that age.
All male sample group
Unable to generalise to females, from Kohlberg’s findings.
Acceptable scientific practice at the time Kohlberg started his research.
Controlled for the effect of gender, which may influence moral development.
Cultural diversity in the sample group
The main findings are based on the 75 American boys and men interviewed by
Kohlberg.
Little is known/published about the characteristics of the participants from Great Britain,
Canada, Mexico, Turkey and Taiwan.
(2018 p2) A Psychology teacher was concerned about the amount of stress her students were experiencing
in preparation for their upcoming A level examinations. One month before the examination,
she decided to offer her students the opportunity to learn how to meditate. 17 of her students
decided to learn how to meditate and practiced meditation for at least 30 minutes per day. 15 of
her students decided not to learn how to meditate. As they entered the exam room, she asked
each student to rate their stress levels as either ‘no stress’, ‘some stress’ or ‘very stressed’. The
psychology teacher decided to compare the stress ratings of those students who meditated with
those students who didn’t meditate using a Chi-Square test.
Identify the sampling technique that was used in this research. (1)
Opportunity (they were the students of the teacher).
OR
Self-selected (students decided whether or not to meditate).
(2018 p2) A Psychology teacher was concerned about the amount of stress her students were experiencing
in preparation for their upcoming A level examinations. One month before the examination,
she decided to offer her students the opportunity to learn how to meditate. 17 of her students
decided to learn how to meditate and practiced meditation for at least 30 minutes per day. 15 of
her students decided not to learn how to meditate. As they entered the exam room, she asked
each student to rate their stress levels as either ‘no stress’, ‘some stress’ or ‘very stressed’. The
psychology teacher decided to compare the stress ratings of those students who meditated with
those students who didn’t meditate using a Chi-Square test.
Explain one advantage and one disadvantage of using this sampling technique in
this research. (2+2)
Credit could be given for:
Self-selected:
Advantage: The only sampling method where the researcher knows the selected participant will
definitely want to take part, unlike randomly selected participants.
Disadvantage: Self-selected volunteers are likely to be unrepresentative as they might be too nice.
Opportunity:
Advantage: The sample is unlikely to be representative.
Disadvantage: Even if asked, a person selected opportunistically can still refuse to participate.
(2018 p2) A Psychology teacher was concerned about the amount of stress her students were experiencing
in preparation for their upcoming A level examinations. One month before the examination,
she decided to offer her students the opportunity to learn how to meditate. 17 of her students
decided to learn how to meditate and practiced meditation for at least 30 minutes per day. 15 of
her students decided not to learn how to meditate. As they entered the exam room, she asked
each student to rate their stress levels as either ‘no stress’, ‘some stress’ or ‘very stressed’. The
psychology teacher decided to compare the stress ratings of those students who meditated with
those students who didn’t meditate using a Chi-Square test.
Define the term ‘social desirability’. (2)
Credit could be given for:
Social desirability is when a participant responds in a particular way because they
think that the response is what others would find favourable, presenting themselves
in the best possible light. [2 marks].
(2018 p2) A Psychology teacher was concerned about the amount of stress her students were experiencing
in preparation for their upcoming A level examinations. One month before the examination,
she decided to offer her students the opportunity to learn how to meditate. 17 of her students
decided to learn how to meditate and practiced meditation for at least 30 minutes per day. 15 of
her students decided not to learn how to meditate. As they entered the exam room, she asked
each student to rate their stress levels as either ‘no stress’, ‘some stress’ or ‘very stressed’. The
psychology teacher decided to compare the stress ratings of those students who meditated with
those students who didn’t meditate using a Chi-Square test.
Explain how social desirability might have influenced this research. (2)
Credit could be given for:
Social desirability may lead the students to say that they are very stressed because
that is what is expected of students going into an examination room. [2 marks]
Social desirability may lead students to artificially lower their stress rating as they do
not want to admit to being stressed to their teacher, especially if she has helped them
to learn meditation. [2 marks]
(2018 p2) A Psychology teacher was concerned about the amount of stress her students were experiencing
in preparation for their upcoming A level examinations. One month before the examination,
she decided to offer her students the opportunity to learn how to meditate. 17 of her students
decided to learn how to meditate and practiced meditation for at least 30 minutes per day. 15 of
her students decided not to learn how to meditate. As they entered the exam room, she asked
each student to rate their stress levels as either ‘no stress’, ‘some stress’ or ‘very stressed’. The
psychology teacher decided to compare the stress ratings of those students who meditated with
those students who didn’t meditate using a Chi-Square test.
The psychology teacher analysed her results by using a Chi-Square test. Explain why this
test was an appropriate inferential statistical test for this research. (4)
Credit could be given for:
Test of difference: between the students who learned to meditate and those students who
didn’t.
Level of Measurement: the number of students in the stress ratings were nominal level data.
Data was independent: each participant could only be either a meditator or not and only give
one stress rating.
Example answers:
A Chi 2
is appropriate because the teacher was looking for a difference between the students who
meditated and those students who did not meditate. Each student was either a meditator or not and
therefore the data is independent. Finally, the number of students in each of the stress ratings, no
stress’, ‘some stress’ or ‘very stressed’, are examples of nominal data as they are categories. [4
marks]
(2018 p2) A Psychology teacher was concerned about the amount of stress her students were experiencing
in preparation for their upcoming A level examinations. One month before the examination,
she decided to offer her students the opportunity to learn how to meditate. 17 of her students
decided to learn how to meditate and practiced meditation for at least 30 minutes per day. 15 of
her students decided not to learn how to meditate. As they entered the exam room, she asked
each student to rate their stress levels as either ‘no stress’, ‘some stress’ or ‘very stressed’. The
psychology teacher decided to compare the stress ratings of those students who meditated with
those students who didn’t meditate using a Chi-Square test.
Following her initial research the Psychology teacher decided to collect some qualitative
data from the students who meditated.
Identify one method that could be used to collect qualitative data about the
experiences of the students who meditated. (1)
Credit could be given for:
Methods could include:
Semi structured interview.
Content analysis of diary.
Case Study.
(2018 p2) A Psychology teacher was concerned about the amount of stress her students were experiencing
in preparation for their upcoming A level examinations. One month before the examination,
she decided to offer her students the opportunity to learn how to meditate. 17 of her students
decided to learn how to meditate and practiced meditation for at least 30 minutes per day. 15 of
her students decided not to learn how to meditate. As they entered the exam room, she asked
each student to rate their stress levels as either ‘no stress’, ‘some stress’ or ‘very stressed’. The
psychology teacher decided to compare the stress ratings of those students who meditated with
those students who didn’t meditate using a Chi-Square test.
Following her initial research the Psychology teacher decided to collect some qualitative
data from the students who meditated.
Justify why the choice of method you identified in (d)(I) (semi structured interview, content analysis of diary, case study) would be appropriate in this
research. (3)
Credit could be given for:
Justification of choice is likely to be based on the strengths of the method selected and it
has to overtly match the method made in choice (d) (i).
Example answer:
Semi-structured Interview: the researcher could ask both closed and open questions; the
open questions would be able to collect qualitative data about the student’s experiences of
meditating. It would also give the researcher the chance to ask supplementary questions if
the student said something interesting about their stress levels or their experiences of
meditating. (3 marks).
(2018 p2) A researcher wanted to investigate if individuals who have a fear of flying (aerophobes)
demonstrate lower levels of anxiety if they fly in First Class than if they fly in Economy Class. The
researcher asked 12 participants who had just completed a ‘Flying without Fear’ course to take
a short flight between London and Manchester in a First Class seat. The same 12 participants
were then asked to take the return flight between Manchester and London in an Economy Class
seat. After each flight, the participants were asked to self-report their ratings of anxiety, using
the following scale: 0 = no anxiety to 10 = highest level of possible anxiety.
Explain one disadvantage of using a self-report method to rate the anxiety of the
participants in this research. (2)
Credit could be given for:
Disadvantages, such as:
May not give an honest response.
May lack introspective ability.
May demonstrate a response bias to higher anxiety scores.
(2018 p2) A researcher wanted to investigate if individuals who have a fear of flying (aerophobes)
demonstrate lower levels of anxiety if they fly in First Class than if they fly in Economy Class. The
researcher asked 12 participants who had just completed a ‘Flying without Fear’ course to take
a short flight between London and Manchester in a First Class seat. The same 12 participants
were then asked to take the return flight between Manchester and London in an Economy Class
seat. After each flight, the participants were asked to self-report their ratings of anxiety, using
the following scale: 0 = no anxiety to 10 = highest level of possible anxiety.
Identify the experimental design used in this research. (1)
Repeated Measures.
Repeated Groups.
(2018 p2) A researcher wanted to investigate if individuals who have a fear of flying (aerophobes)
demonstrate lower levels of anxiety if they fly in First Class than if they fly in Economy Class. The
researcher asked 12 participants who had just completed a ‘Flying without Fear’ course to take
a short flight between London and Manchester in a First Class seat. The same 12 participants
were then asked to take the return flight between Manchester and London in an Economy Class
seat. After each flight, the participants were asked to self-report their ratings of anxiety, using
the following scale: 0 = no anxiety to 10 = highest level of possible anxiety.
Explain one disadvantage of using this experimental design in this research. (2)
Credit could be given for:
Order effects: the anxiety levels felt on the return flight may be higher than they would have been
because the participants have already taken one flight during that day.
Order effects: the anxiety levels on the second flight might be lower because they have already
experienced one flight during the day and if they managed their flying phobia well they may feel more
confident and hence less anxious on the return flight.
Need for additional resources: the researcher has to take the twelve participants on two separate
flights. If an Independent groups design had been used, the researcher could have just taken 24
participants and randomly allocated them to be in first or economy class on just one flight.
(2018 p2) A researcher wanted to investigate if individuals who have a fear of flying (aerophobes)
demonstrate lower levels of anxiety if they fly in First Class than if they fly in Economy Class. The
researcher asked 12 participants who had just completed a ‘Flying without Fear’ course to take
a short flight between London and Manchester in a First Class seat. The same 12 participants
were then asked to take the return flight between Manchester and London in an Economy Class
seat. After each flight, the participants were asked to self-report their ratings of anxiety, using
the following scale: 0 = no anxiety to 10 = highest level of possible anxiety.
Showing your calculations, calculate the mean anxiety ratings (5 3 5 5 4 3 5 6 2 4 6 4) of the 12 participants
after the First Class flight. (2)
Credit given for appropriate answer and calculations:
5+3+5+5+4+3+5+6+2+4+6+4=52
52/12 = 4.3 (recurring)
(2018 p2) A researcher wanted to investigate if individuals who have a fear of flying (aerophobes)
demonstrate lower levels of anxiety if they fly in First Class than if they fly in Economy Class. The
researcher asked 12 participants who had just completed a ‘Flying without Fear’ course to take
a short flight between London and Manchester in a First Class seat. The same 12 participants
were then asked to take the return flight between Manchester and London in an Economy Class
seat. After each flight, the participants were asked to self-report their ratings of anxiety, using
the following scale: 0 = no anxiety to 10 = highest level of possible anxiety.
Give one advantage and one disadvantage of using the mean as a measure of
central tendency in this research. (2+2)
Credit could be given for:
Advantages:
Can be used in further statistical analysis.
Unlike the mode, there is always a mean score.
Disadvantages:
May produce a value that no participant in the data set actually achieved.
May be influenced by an anomalous result.
(2018 p2) A researcher wanted to investigate if individuals who have a fear of flying (aerophobes)
demonstrate lower levels of anxiety if they fly in First Class than if they fly in Economy Class. The
researcher asked 12 participants who had just completed a ‘Flying without Fear’ course to take
a short flight between London and Manchester in a First Class seat. The same 12 participants
were then asked to take the return flight between Manchester and London in an Economy Class
seat. After each flight, the participants were asked to self-report their ratings of anxiety, using
the following scale: 0 = no anxiety to 10 = highest level of possible anxiety.
Explain why the ethical issue, ‘risk of stress, anxiety, humiliation or pain’, might be relevant
to this research. (2)
Credit could be given for:
Even though the participants have completed their ‘Flying without Fear course’, the researcher is
still exposing the participants to an activity about which they have had a phobia, therefore they
may be more likely to suffer from anxiety during the flights than a person with no fear of flying.
If participants start to demonstrate anxiety during the flights, they may feel embarrassed and
possibly humiliated if they show anxiety in front of other people that they know from completing
their Flying without Fear course.
