[PAPER 1] UK Politics

Question 1

Give advantages of FPTP

Answer 1

• it is speedy and simple, one vote for one candidate, result is calculated quickly e.g took 18 months to form govt in Belgium under another system
• FPTP promotes a two party system- leads to strong governments because it gives clear majority to one party, govt can be removed at the next election if voters don’t approve
• extreme parties e.g ones which may have racist, xenophobic or other extremist views, are much less likely to gain power and influence e.g BNP, EDL

Question 2

Give disadvantages of FPTP

Answer 2

• limits voter choice- each party puts forward a single candidate so there is no individuals representing different opinions within a party. Safe seats means that one party can dominate a certain area and so opposing parties have little chance to win. This can also lower voter turnout as people feel like there is no point voting for a candidate that has no chance of winning. 2015 it was estimated that 364, 56% of the total, were safe seats
• FPTP produces governments elected on a minority of the popular vote e.g lowest percentage was 2005 where Tony Blair was re-elected on 35.2% of the vote
• Votes aren’t proportional- in smaller constituencies, votes usually count for more than they do in larger ones, e.g it took 9407 votes to elect the MP for Orkney and Shetland compared to 28,591 for the Isle of Wight MP

Question 3

Give advantages of AMS (Additional Member)

Answer 3

• the top-up component introduces a proportional, correcting FPTP, a calculation is made using the d’Hondt formula to determine how many members a party is allocated from the list
• FPTP element maintains a strong link between the member and constituency
• voters have wider choice than under FPTP- they can vote for a ‘split ticket’ meaning they can use one vote for a certain party to represent the constituency and vote for another party with the top-up vote

Question 4

Give disadvantages of AMS (Additional Member)

Answer 4

• creates two different types of member- some with constituency responsibilities and some without- less effective
• a closed system is used which means the party leadership ranks candidates in order on the list- means that candidates who go against official policy can have limited chance of being elected
• smaller parties have less representation than under a fully proportional system e.g in Wales where the small number of top-up seats has advantaged Labour, smaller parties e.g Plaid Cymru have less chance of winning

Question 5

Give advantages of STV (Single Transferable Vote)

Answer 5

• close correlation between votes and seats- it is proportional
• voter choice is high- possible to choose different candidates from the same party as well as candidates from different parties
• in Northern Ireland it has created a power-sharing government that enables representatives of the two rival communities, the unionists and nationalists, to work together ended 30 years of conflict

Question 6

Give disadvantages of STV (Single Transferable Vote)

Answer 6

• produces weak, co-alition governments and Parliaments with lots of different viewpoints- makes it hard to decide on laws
• in large, multi-member constituencies, the link between the member and voters may be weak- many members of different parties representing views
• power-sharing govts are still prone to conflict e.g N. Ireland executive was suspended several times, including for almost 2002-07 due to a breakdown of trust, co-operation between the parties broke down again in 2017

Question 7

Give advantages of SV (Supplementary Vote)

Answer 7

• ensures broad support for the winner e.g Sadiq Khan, elected London Mayor 2016, has the largest personal mandate of any elected politician in UK history
• it is simple and straightforward- more effective than some other systems e.g STV
• has allowed some independent candidates to win (without a party) e.g 12 out of 40 police and crime commissioners were independents in 2012

Question 8

Give disadvantages of SV (Supplementary Vote)

Answer 8

• not proportional as one individual is elected into a single office
• the winner does not need to get an absolute majority- doesn’t have public opinion, unlikely to gain support
• voters need to be able to identify the likely top two candidates in order to have influence over the outcome, this is confusing to voters and the top 2 candidates aren’t always clear

Question 9

What are positives of direct democracy?

Answer 9

• a sense of community- people discuss their views and make a decision together
• responsible, educated citizens are encouraged- people want to be educated in order to make the right decision

Question 10

What are negatives of direct democracy?

Answer 10

• not all opinions are heard- minority views are ignored e.g EU referendum 52% leave 48% remain- remain views ignored
• slow, impractical process- people all have to vote, votes are counted (millions of votes), no one has time to vote on every law
• not everyone is an expert on everything- e.g EU referendum a lot of voters lacked knowledge on what they were voting for

Question 11

What are positives of representative democracy?

Answer 11

• encourages many viewpoints and choices- representatives are chosen from candidates that all have different viewpoints
• minority views are considered- all groups in society are considered
• experts in a wide range of fields make the decisions- MPs are experts in economics/law etc.
• practical, realistic, swift decision making- quick for single MPs to make decisions

Question 12

What are negatives of representative democracy?

Answer 12

• discourages participation in democratic processes for ordinary citizens- decisions are left to MPs so public doesn’t get educated
• elite groups with their own interests gain control of the political process- can be corrupt e.g if rich people vote only for what they want
• minority views ignored to secure votes- MPs will do what the majority wants to gain popularity
• representatives are corrupt and loyal to their parties- only vote for what’s good for them

Question 13

What are positives of British democracy?

Answer 13

• the media have freedom of expression to criticise the government/political parties
• political parties have a range of different views
• elections are free and fair
• devolved govt in Scotland and Wales, elected mayors e.g London and Manchester mean power is split all over the country
• Human Rights law- lawmakers ensure people have their rights protected

Question 14

What are negatives of British democracy?

Answer 14

• media run by only a few people e.g Rupert Murdoch runs the Sun- only one viewpoint
• membership of parties are declining- no new viewpoints
• small parties aren’t represented well in elections e.g UKIP 2015 3.9 million votes and 1 seat
• House of Lords is unelected, not chosen by the people and aren’t representative- most are over 50, white and male
• Human Rights can be suspended by Parliament e. g prevention of Terrorism Act

Question 15

Give reasons for why there IS a participation crisis in the UK

Answer 15

• turnout- e.g 2001 was the lowest turnout since 1918, average turnout in the May 2016 general election in Wales, it was only 33.8%
• party membership- Conservative party membership was only 150,000 in 2016 compared to 400,000 in 1990s, Labour party’s membership increased in the run up to the 1997 election but fell when they were in government
• pressure groups and e-democracy- people aren’t involved in traditional politics anymore. There may be political apathy- lack of interest and awareness in current events
• perception of politicians- MPs are seen as corrupt, there was an abuse in the system where MPs could claim expenses for living costs

Question 16

Give reasons for why there ISN’T a participation crisis in the UK

Answer 16

• turnout- e.g Scottish referendum had a 84.6% turnout, EU referendum had 72.2%
• party membership- when Jeremy Corbyn became the leader, Labour party membership rose from 190,000 members to 515,000 members
• membership of pressure groups has been increasing, recently there have been well attended demonstrations on issues like fuel prices
• e-democracy- allows people to show a viewpoint online, a new form of political engagement

Question 17

How can democracy be improved in the UK?

Answer 17

Postal voting- ballot papers are posted to people

E-voting- people can vote online

Lowering voting age- voting age can be lowered from 18 to 16

Compulsory voting- if people don’t turn up to vote they can be fined

Changing electoral system- could change to a more proportional system

Improving accountability of Parliament- processes are made more democratic

Giving greater power to local government- power is transferred

Question 18

Give advantages of ways UK democracy can be improved

Answer 18

• postal voting means less effort is required to vote which would encourage more people
• e-voting is quick and easy, requires less effort
• lowering voting age allows the younger generation to decide their future
• compulsory voting is good because people should be involved in processes which affect their lives
• changing electoral system means more minority views and parties would be considered
• improving accountability of Parliament means govt is more effective
• giving greater power to local government means power can be devolved to English regions- more fair

Question 19

Give disadvantages of ways UK democracy can be improved

Answer 19

• in postal voting there could be fraud or multiple voting
• e-voting can be hacked, may discriminate against older people who don’t know about technology
• when lowering voting age, 16 year olds may not want to vote so might not improve turnout
• compulsory voting is undemocratic
• changing electoral system may lead to weak govt with too many different opinions

Question 20

Give reasons FOR voting age to be lowered to 16

Answer 20

• you can already get married at 16 which means there is a sense of responsibility
• young people should be able to determine their future- most things parties stand for will affect young people so they should have an input e.g EU referendum
• there should be equality for everyone regardless of age- 16 and 17 year olds are discriminated against and said to be too immature
• in Scottish referendum 16 and 17 year olds could vote for the first time, 75% voted- shows they have interest
• keeps young people involved in politics, educates them more
• young people can bring up new issues or policies e.g student loans
• there are citizenship lessons in school (PSHE) which proves young people’s knowledge about democracy/politics

Question 21

Give reasons AGAINST voting age to be lowered to 16

Answer 21

• 18 is the age of adulthood and legal independence, average life expectancy is 80 so at 18 nearly a quarter of life has passed, therefore 18 is a better age to make decisions
• 16 year olds haven’t entered the world of home ownership, employment, tax or pensions- these issues are usually at the forefront of political campaigns
• lack of experience prevents young people from making considered judgement when voting
• 18-24 year olds have the lowest turnout at elections, reflecting an apparent lack of interest in politics- if voting age is lowered will turnout actually improve? e.g 2015 election 43% of 18-24 year olds voted
• teenagers are easily influenced by radical politics or would not think things through and blindly vote e.g for the same party as their parents
• some 16 year olds are too immature
• most countries have 18 as the voting age, 86%
• most rights at 16 require parental permission e.g getting married

Question 22

Give reasons FOR state funding of political parties

Answer 22

• they are a vital part of democracy and present different views in society so they deserve money
• it would remove inequality of funding at the moment e.g Conservatives have £9m, Labour £7m, UKIP £2m, SNP £10,500
• if the state gave money to political parties it may encourage people to join in on politics- gives wider views
• it will stop rich people having influence on political parties e.g Michael Farmer donated £5m to the Conservatives, Richard Desmond donated £1m to UKIP

Question 23

Give reasons AGAINST state funding of political parties

Answer 23

• if money is given via taxes, there may be more regulation on what the party does with the money- not very democratic
• debate on how you decide how much money a party will get, which parties will qualify??
• tax payers will end up paying money to parties they dont agree with
• it may cause parties to lose connection with the public who want to support them

Question 24

Give examples of Conservative party policy

Answer 24

Economy- believe in free market, cutting tax, privatisation

Law and Order- pro-punishment, national infrastructure police force will be set up, £1 billion to modernise prison estate

Welfare- NHS cuts- private healthcare, reduced wages, increasing private house ownership, selling social housing (council houses)

Foreign policy- strong links with USA, want to maintain/increase defence budget, divided on Brexit, nationalist

Question 25

Give examples of Labour party policy

Answer 25

Economy- taxing top earners, investing in infrastructure, nationalisation

Law and Order- pro-rehabilitation and prevention, investing in police force e.g 20,000 more police officers, community police officers

Welfare- believe in welfare state, more funding for NHS and scrapping NHS pay gap, free universal healthcare, new and affordable housing

Foreign Policy- pro-NATO, pro-defence system, anti-Brexit, pro-single market, anti-arms exportation

Question 26

What impact has the SNP had on UK politics?

Answer 26

• impact on Labour support: forced Labour to create Scottish Parliament in 1998, in 1997 Labour had 56 seats in Scotland
• impact on co-alition govt: Alex Salmond wanted more power for Scotland, lead to the 2012 Scotland act and David Cameron agreed to 2014 Scottish referendum
• 2015 election: SNP won 56 out of 59 seats at Westminster which damaged Labour’s power- fuelled Nicola Sturgeon’s demand for a second referendum
• impact post-Brexit: Scotland voted to remain in the EU, 62% to 38%- SNP use this as a reason to hold a second referendum to keep Scotland in the EU
• West Lothian question- SNP MPs can vote on English and Welsh issues but not vice versa- lead to EVEL (English Votes for English Laws) which had restrictions on Scottish MPs
• rise of Scottish Conservatives- people used tactical voting and voted for Conservative or Labour to keep the SNP out of Scotland

Question 27

What impact has UKIP had on UK politics?

Answer 27

• impact on Conservative and Labour support: UKIP gained support in traditionally Labour and Conservative regions- 4 million votes in 2015 election
• forced Conservative govt into EU referendum: Conservatives were concerned over loss of support to UKIP and a break up of the party- forced David Cameron into the 2016 EU referendum

Question 28

What have been positive impacts of AMS?

Answer 28

Scotland:
- Labour/Libdem coalition governments formed in 1999 and 2003 encouraged new policies in Westminster

• smaller parties have benefited e.g 2003- the Green party and Scottish Socialist Party gained MSPs (members of Scottish parliament)
• Conservatives only got 1 MSP under FPTP but got 18 MSPs in 2001 under AMS

Wales:
- Labour won 27 out of 40 FPTP seats on 38% of the vote but after additional members were added, UKIP gained 7 seats on 13% of the vote

Question 29

What have been negative impacts of AMS?

Answer 29

• often forms coalitions- not very strong govt
• there is little knowledge about it- a 2007 poll shows that only 10% of voters understood AMS
• lack of personal mandate for top-up members- some lost the constituency vote but were then elected as top-up members- some MPs won’t have much support

Question 30

What have been positive impacts of STV?

Answer 30

• is proportional and helps minority parties e.g there are 9 different parties that have some representation in the N. Irish assembly

Question 31

What have been negative impacts of STV?

Answer 31

• candidates from the same party may criticise each other in order to gain 1st preference votes- causes conflict
• low intelligibility- 2003 no one understood the droop quota
• no co-operation between parties e.g 2017 suspension of N. Irish assembly

Question 32

What have been positive impacts of Supplementary vote?

Answer 32

• easy to understand- encourages people

- people vote for their first preference so it stops parties with racist/xenophobic views e.g BNP

Question 33

What have been negative impacts of Supplementary vote?

Answer 33

• smaller parties do worse- people vote for the top two likely candidates

Question 34

Compare FPTP to Supplementary vote

Answer 34

Fairness of outcome: in FPTP, winner has to get 50% of the vote, an absolute majority, SV doesn’t need a majority therefore may be less fair. Second vote in SV means more views/votes are considered, in FPTP all votes except the winners are wasted

Choice of candidates: in supplementary you can choose 2 candidates, a preferred and a back up, in FPTP all other candidates are not likely to win so people tactically vote to avoid one side winning

Link between MP and constituency: both preserve the link

Accountability of govt: SV is still accountable as an individual is voted for, not a party e.g Sadiq Khan can claim a wider majority than any other politician, FPTP has recently not formed strong accountable govts e.g 2010 coalition

Question 35

Compare FPTP to STV

Answer 35

Fairness of outcome: STV translates votes into seats more fairly than FPTP, helps smaller parties. It gets rid of tactical voting as voters do not have to vote for the candidate who is most likely to block the party they dislike

Choice of candidates: STV has a much wider choice than FPTP. In FPTP there is only one choice, in STV there is five. Under STV people can vote for different candidates under the same party. However it may encourage ‘donkey voting’ where voters may list candidates in the order on the ballot paper

Link between MP and constituency: weaker under STV, especially in multi-member constituencies which are too large for their representatives to know well. However STV gets rid of safe seats meaning that candidates have to work harder to get votes and so they will address concerns across the whole constituency. FPTP encourages parties to focus on marginal seats (ones which arent safe)

Accountability of govt: votes take longer to count under STV which may delay the formation of govt, it is likely to
produce a coalition which may lead to instalibilty, it may also result in a weak minority govt. FPTP is stronger in this aspect

Question 36

Compare FPTP to AMS

Answer 36

Fairness of outcome: d’Hondt formula introduces a proportional aspect but it can still reflect the bias of FPTP; FPTP lacks proportionality

Choice of candidates: choice of candidate with the FPTP aspect but no choice over top up MPs which are elected by a list, still gives wider votes than FPTP because in FPTP all other votes except for the winner are disregarded

Link between MP and constituency- both preserve the link. Top up MPs have no clear constituency but there are other constituent MPs

Question 37

Give advantages of referendums

Answer 37

• purest form of direct democracy- direct involvement of people, crosses party lines so it is a real choice
• ends the control of govt- general elections leave one party in power for 5 years, referendums allow people to have a voice more than once in 5 years
• can entrench change- referendum results have legitimacy because a lot of people make the decision. once the decision is made it is hard to change, govts attempting to change it are going against public opinion
• referendums engage the population in political issues and educate people e.g Scottish referendum 84.6% turnout- shows engagement of the population
• fairness- electoral commission monitors and supervises all referendums to ensure equality and fairness, wording of the referendum is made as neutral as possible

Question 38

Give disadvantages of referendums

Answer 38

• you cannot have a simple yes or no question for complicated, important questions e.g EU referendum
• close results e.g EU referendum leads to division e.g 48.1% remain, 51.9% leave. ‘tyranny of the majority’ leads to ‘neverendums’ where more referendums are demanded due to people being unsatisfied with the result
• they are undermined if the arguments are poorly explained e.g leave campaign bus saying they would give £350 million a week to the NHS. 2011 electoral reform referendum had a 42% turnout because no one understood
• the govt calls the referendum e.g Scotland has to seek Westminster permission to hold a second referendum- govt has their own interests
• always have low turnout- leads to lack of legitimacy
• people sometimes don’t vote on the actual issue e.g EU referendum became an anti-Cameron vote rather than for/against the EU
• the answer carries bias e.g Scottish referendum ‘yes’ had positive connotations and ‘no’ was negative- implied bias. Question was deliberately changed in the EU referendum to leave/remain to avoid bias

Question 39

Why was FPTP adopted for Westminster elections?

Answer 39

• serves the two leading parties best

- voters accept it as it is familiar and easy to use

Question 40

Why was AMS adopted for Scottish and Welsh elections?

Answer 40

• chosen as a compromise that would result in a broadly represented Parliament - Lib Dems and SNP wanted STV and Labour wanted a more proportional system
• Wales also used AMS because it worked for Scotland

Question 41

Why was STV adopted for Northern Irish elections?

Answer 41

• highly proportional system ensures broad representation of different parties
• important to represent different views due to previous conflict in N. Ireland
• already used in Republic of Ireland

Question 42

Why was SV adopted to elect mayors?

Answer 42

• simple to use

- winner would have a clear mandate as only the top two preferences would be counted

Question 43

What is the impact of different electoral systems on type of government?

Answer 43

• coalition and minority govts have become more common in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland
• causes compromise: Scotland- bigger parties have to win the support of minority parties in order to pass legislation, Wales- Labour have been the strongest party but the proportional element of AMS denies them the opportunity to govern alone, N.Ireland- Good Friday agreement requires representation of Unionist and Nationalist parties to avoid single party domination, Westminster- smaller parties have less influence
• policy in devolved govts: Scottish Labour-Lib Dem coalition decided that University students would not pay tuition fees - this wasn’t extended to England meaning there isn’t a uniform welfare state across the UK

Question 44

What is the impact of different electoral systems on party representation and voter choice?

Answer 44

• smaller parties have been helped to an extent under STV and AMS
• smaller parties want to reform the electoral system but have little chance of doing so
• 2010 coaltion government has not encouraged the public to demand for electoral system reform
• AMS allows people two votes, STV allows even more. Fewer votes are wasted under STV. SV allows a first and second preference - all provide more choice than FPTP

Question 45

How does gender influence voting behaviour?

Answer 45

• historically women had a slightly stronger preference for the Conservatives- could be because women favoured a more stable society
• in the Blair era differences between male and female voting lessened, younger women were more likely than men to vote Labour because by the 1990s, women were as likely as men to have a job outside the home
• older women more likely to vote Conservative than younger women, same with men. e.g 2010 election 30% of women aged 18-24 voted Conservative, for women over 55 rose to 42%
• turnout does not significantly differ between men and women e.g 2010 election 66% of men and 64% of women voted

Question 46

How does age influence voting behaviour?

Answer 46

• older people have greater tendency to vote Conservative as they are more likely to own property
• younger age groups are more likely to vote the third party, usually Lib Dem’s
• older age means they are less likely to vote idealistically or with the aspiration of fundamentally changing society
• affected by voter’s experiences e.g older voters will remember difficulties faced by Labour govts in 1970s
• older people more likely than the young to vote e.g 2010 76% of over 65s voted compared to 44% 18-24 year olds. Older people tend to see the outcome of elections having more impact on their lives

Question 47

How does ethnicity influence voting behaviour?

Answer 47

• ethnic minorities are traditionally more inclined to vote Labour due to its focus on promoting multicultural society and being anti-discrimination of gender e.g 2010 election 60% of ethnic minorities voted Labour and 16% voted Conservative. 67% of white people voted compared to 51% ethnic minorities
• 2016 EU referendum- education was the most important factor with 75% of those without qualifications voting for Brexit while 75% of those with University degrees voting against Brexit- ethnicity not that important

Question 48

How does region influence voting behaviour?

Answer 48

• most voters in Southern, rural areas and suburbs (with the highest areas of employment and home ownership) typically support Conservatives
• industrial and urban areas in the North of England, Wales and Midlands (poorest areas of the country) have stronger loyalty to Labour

Question 49

How do newspapers affect voting behaviour?

Answer 49

• biased- openly support a particular party
• lack of control over the press- Levenson inquiry resulted in the Independent Press Standards Organisation tried to regulate it but freedom of speech says the press can’t be controlled
  example: the Sun has backed every winner of the general election over the last 20 years, which can show their influence over voters

Question 50

How are newspapers limited in affecting voting behaviour?

Answer 50

• newspapers are read by supporters of the party that the newspaper supports e.g 2017 general election the Daily Mail supported Conservatives and 74% of its readers were Conservative voters- not influencing any new people to vote in a certain way
• less people are reading newspapers e.g 1997 the Sun sold 4 million copies every day but in 2017 they sold 1.8 million a day- young people use the internet instead as it’s more up to date

Question 51

How does TV affect voting behaviour?

Answer 51

• leadership debates are important e.g 2017 Theresa May didn’t attend which had a negative impact
• money is spent on political broadcasts which shows influence
• on general election day, no political coverage is allowed- shows it is influential
• millions of people watch, although it has declined due to catch up or Netflix
• 2015- 7 million people watched the debate on ITV and 4 million watched on BBC- influential

Question 52

How is TV limited in affecting voting behaviour?

Answer 52

• Nick Clegg had a boost after his performance in the first TV debate but this was only temporary as people swung back to vote for the main two parties
• Jeremy Corbyn had negative coverage on TV but still got votes due to his personality and policies

Question 53

How does Social media affect voting behaviour?

Answer 53

• 2017 election Labour used it to get votes through WhatsApp, influenced 400,000 people
• Labour party has 600,000 Twitter followers
• can be used to influence especially young people

Question 54

How is Social media limited in affecting voting behaviour?

Answer 54

• no control over internet sites- they can be one-sided and potentially inaccurate
• too early for political researchers to evaluate their influence

Question 55

How do Opinion polls affect voting behaviour?

Answer 55

• they have become an integral part of election campaigns

- parties take note of their findings and conduct their own polls- shows their importance

Question 56

How are Opinion polls limited in affecting voting behaviour?

Answer 56

• not always accurate- in 1992 most polls failed to predict John Major’s 21 seat majority, most predicted a hung Parliament. 2015 they were wrong again- predicted Labour and Conservatives to get 34% of the vote but Conservatives got 36.9% and Labour got 30.4%
• ‘boomerang effect’ can happen where polls may predict a certain party to win, but people don’t agree with this so vote the opposite way
• they don’t often survey a representative group of people e.g they don’t survey older people who are more likely to vote Conservative or young people who are more likely to vote Labour

Question 57

What were party policies and manifestos in the 1979 general election?

Answer 57

Conservative manifesto: reducing inflation, tax cuts and trade union reform

Labour: also reducing inflation, workng with trade unions, full employment

Liberal: voting reform, open govt and federal Britain

• Thatcher skilfully used TV in her campaign, also managed photo opportunities, Callaghan wanted a TV debate but never organised one
• Conservatives had media support from The Sun, The Mail and the Telegraph
• Labour had media support from The Mirror and The Guardian
• Thatcher was seen as distant and posh- there was no mention in her election campaign about radically wanting to reduce the state or shifting the party to the right, although there was brief mention of privatising industries
• Callaghan was seen as reliable and likeable but when he warned the electorate of Conservatives lurching to the right it had little credibility

Question 58

What were party election campaigns in the 1979 general election?

Answer 58

• Conservatives used modern advertising to help with their campaign under the guidance of two professional publicity specialists Gordon Reece and Tim Bell
• Labour campaign lacked this but when voters were asked who would make a better PM, James Callaghan was 20 points ahead of Thatcher and people appreciated his experience
• Conservatives won 43.9% of the vote and 339 seats, an increase of 62- over 50% majority in Parliament
• Labour won 36.9% of the vote and 269 seats in Parliament, a loss of 50
• Liberals won 13.8% of the vote and 11 seats in Parlament, a loss of 2

Question 59

What was voting behaviour like in the 1979 general election?

Answer 59

• 76% turnout
• sharp decline in people who called themselves working class which may have lowered Labour’s votes, middle class was growing which helped Conservatives- Conservative and Labour had the same % of skilled working class votes at 41%, Conservatives won 59% of middle class votes
• men and women both voted more for Conservatives- 43% of men and 47% of women voted Conservative
• more young people (18-34) voted Labour while those 35+ voted more for Conservatives, Labour had 41% of 18-24 year olds while Conservatives had the majoirty of 43% of 23-34 year olds
• Labour govt before the election was very weak, Callaghan had a minority govt that survived by constructing deals with smaller parties, Winter of Discontent damaged Labour’s reputation- many trade unions went on strike at the same time for better pay including lorry drivers, NHS workers, bin collectors and even some gravediggers, Labour was associated with trade unions so people voted against them- gave the Conservatives a campaign theme: the country needed new direction and new leadership

Question 60

What were party policies and manifestos in the 1997 general election?

Answer 60

Conservative manifesto: low taxes, maintaining opt-out of the ‘Social Chapter’ with the EU, investment in the NHS

Labour: ‘New Labour’ which abandoned nationalisation, tax increase an increasing trade union powers, wanted to reduce school class sizes and cut NHS waiting times, also committed to tough defence

Lib Dem: better education, protecting the environment, strengthening liberty and widening opportunities for all

• no stark difference between Labour and Conservatives
• Labour gained support of the greater part of the press including The Sun and The Times
• Blair emphasised constitutional reform which gave the party common ground with Lib Dems- helped Labour gain more votes as people tactically voted for Labour where they thought Lib Dem candidates would not win

Question 61

What were party election campaigns in the 1997 general election?

Answer 61

• Labour employed public-relations experts to handle the media, used focus groups to assess public opinion and systematically targeted marginal seats rather than safe seats- despite central control over the campaign, the party’s lead in the opinion polls actually declined
• Labour won 43.2% of the popular vote and 418 seats, an increase of 145
• Conservatives won 30.7% of the vote and 165 seats, a loss of 178
• Lib Dems won 16.8% of the vote and 46 seats, an increase of 28

Question 62

What was voting behaviour like in the 1997 general election?

Answer 62

• turnout relatively low at 71.4%
• Labour won mainly due to damage of the Conservatives’ reputation after their narrow victory in he 1992 election, Conservatives had their worst election result since 1832
• economy played a key part- economy was recovering by 1997 but people did not give Conservatives credit for this- they remembered the catastrophe of ‘Black Wednesday’
• image of Tory incompetence was confirmed by a series of financial and sexual scandals (the media called them ‘sleaze’) and divisions over the EU
• Labour had majority of votes from skilled working class and semi/unskilled working class, Conservatives got most of the vote from the middle class
• more men and women voted Labour- men 45% and women 44%
• Labour got most of the vote across all age groups, 49% of 18-24 year olds, 49% of 23-34 year olds and 41% of over 65s

Question 63

What were party policies and manifestos in the 2017 general election?

Answer 63

Conservative manifesto: investing in infrastructure and people, delivering a smooth Brexit, helping an ageing society

Labour: seeking to unite the country over Brexit result, lowering tuition fees and introducing maintenance grants, investing in the NHS

Lib Dem: belief that Britain is stronger in the EU and wants to give the option of remaining in the EU, increase income tax to help the NHS, reducing air pollution

Question 64

What were party election campaigns in the 2017 general election?

Answer 64

• it was a snap election called by Theresa May because she said an early election was the only way to unify the country over Brexit
• Conservatives and Labour sought to unite the country over Brexit, whereas Lib Dems were more focused on Britain remaining in the EU and focused on giving Britain the option to remain in the EU
• there was a TV debate in which leaders of the SNP (Nicola Sturgeon), UKIP (Paul Nuttall), Plaid Cymru (Leanne Wood), Liberal Democrat (Tim Farron) and Green (Caroline Lucas)- neither Theresa May or Jeremy Corbyn took part in the TV debate, Theresa May refused to take part in any
• most readers of The Telegraph, The Daily Express, The Daily Mail and The Sun voted Conservative
• most readers of The Mirror, The Independent and The Guardian voted Labour
• result was a hung parliament with a very small majority for Theresa May, Theresa May got support from the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) in order to give her a majority of seats

Question 65

What was voting behaviour like in the 2017 general election?

Answer 65

• turnout 68.8%
• Conservatives got the most votes in the South of England and the Midlands, Conservatives saw a surge in Scotland, gaining 12 seats
• Labour got the most votes in South Wales, the North of England and London, Labour gained 4 seats in London
• Lib Dems gained some seats in Scotland and England but they were wiped out by Conservatives in Yorkshire and the Humber
• most people aged 18-49 voted Labour, most aged 50-70+ voted Conservative
• turnout increased as people got older
• more middle class people voted Conservatives, although Conservative share of the vote also increased with skilled and semi-skilled working class people, more unskilled working class people voted Labour
• education became a factor- more people with lower education (GCSE or below) voted Conservative and more with a degree voted for Labour
• women were more split in which party they voted for while more men voted Conservative
• Labour gained votes from black people and other ethnic minorities, going up six point compared to 2015 to gain 73% of the vote

Question 66

How has the franchise (number of people who can vote) widened in the past?(acts)

Answer 66

1832 Great Reform Act:

• created seats for urban areas e.g Manchester
• granted vote to new categories of people e.g tenant farmers and smaller property owners
• created a standard- all male householders who paid a yearly rental of £10 or more could vote
• electorate increased to 650,000- 5% of adult population

1918 Representation of the People Act:

• gave all men over 21 and women over 30 the vote
• 75% of adult population could vote

1928 Representation of the People Act:

• men and women equal in voting- all men and women over 21 could vote
• full adult suffrage

1969 Representation of the People Act:
- voting age lowered to 18- reflected changing attitudes about adulthood

Question 67

How did suffragettes/suffragists extend the franchise?

Answer 67

before: married women were represented by the vote of their husbands, women were allowed to vote in local elections but not parliamentary- only men should have a say on such important issues

suffragists:

• National Union of Women’s Suffrage formed in 1897 with Millicent Fawcett as leader
• mainly middle class women who believed in non-violent methods of persuasion e.g peaceful demonstrations, petitions and lobbying

suffragettes:

• former suffragist Emmeline Pankhurst felt NUWSS was too slow- formed Women’s Social and Political Union in 1903
• attracted both middle and w.c support and used more radical tactics e.g hunger strikes and in 1913 Emily Davison threw herself under the king’s horse at Epsom Derby
• aim was to attract publicity and put pressure on parliament

effectiveness: 1918 Representation of the People Act gave women over 30 the vote
- can be argued that suffragists were largely ignored due to non-violent methods and suffragettes alienated potential supporters
- can also be argued that role of women in war work by filling gaps for men, persuaded govt that they were fit for the vote

Question 68

What are different types of pressure groups and how do they exert influence?

Answer 68

interest groups: seek to promote interests of an occupation or other group in society e.g trade unions negotiate with employers over wages and working conditions, membership is usually restricted to those who fit requirements e.g have to be a teacher to join National Union of Teachers

cause groups: focused on achieving a particular goal or drawing attention to an issue, membership usually open to anyone who sympathises with their aims e.g Greenpeace promotes awareness of environmental concerns and influences govt to promote ‘green’ causes, cause groups can also promote other groups in society but members do not belong to that group e.g Shelter wants housing for homeless people but most members aren’t homeless

social movements: usually politically radical and want to achieve a single objective e.g Camps for Climate Action protested against expansion of Heathrow Airport

insider groups: have contacts with govt- used to achieve their aims

outsider groups: not consulted by govt, objectives may be far out of political mainstream that govt is unlikely to consult with them

think tanks: groups of experts who investigate particular topics, have a lot more time and expertise than regular pressure groups, some have direct influence on govt BUT think tanks are often ignored- staffed by young, ambitious people who don’t have as much expertise as other groups e.g universities

lobbyists: members of professional organisations paid by clients to access govt or parliament, purpose is to gain influence to legislation for their clients, influential- employs 4000 people and £2 billion is spent on it every year
corporations: powerful corporations can lobby govt to modify policies that affect their business interests- can be limited e.g in 2016 British Soft Drinks Association did not want govt to implement tax on sugary drinks but govt persisted with its policy

Question 69

What are different methods of pressure groups and how effective are they?

Answer 69

resources: large membership means a group has more financial resources to run offices and organise publicity e.g RSPCA employs about 1600 people with thousands of volunteers, they can be more influential in govt with more resources BUT this may not always be the case e.g in the 1980s, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament had around 110,000 members but Thatcher govt ignored them

tactics and leadership: experienced, capable leadership is vital to success e.g RSPCA collaborated with two similar groups, League Against Cruel Sports and International Fund for Animal Welfare to secure a ban on hunting dogs in 2004, another key to success is knowing which access points in the political system to target e.g Friends of the Earth ran a successful campaign to compel govt to clean up beaches, as required by the EU

public support: pressure groups whose agenda is in line with govt are usually more successful than those who have different objectives or those whose methods may alienate the public e.g the Snowdrop campaign to ban use of handguns was largely successful because of the public reaction to the 1996 Dunblane Primary School massacre, use of media and well-known personalities can also help e.g TV celeb Joanna Lumley supported retired Gurkha soldiers’ right to live in the UK, influenced govt to overturn the ban on their right to live in the UK

govt attitudes: insider contacts to govt and civil service are key to success e.g National Farmers Union’s links to Defra (govt department) were key in bringing about 2013 Badger cull

example of pressure group success: BMA wanted a ban on smoking in cars with children, was supported by other pressure groups like Asthma UK, ban came about in October 2015

example of pressure group failure: in 2011 Occupy London protested about corporate greed in London outside St Paul’s Cathedral, failed to achieve long-lasting results due to strong stand by autorities

Question 70

What are some case studies of pressure groups?

Answer 70

Greenpeace:

• promote green energy and are against pollution and climate change
• expose people who commit crimes towards the environment and find solutions to the problems
• they lobby decision-makers in govt to promote their aims and make sure their campaign demands are heard by politicians
• build political support by producing research and organising events for MPs

NSPCC:

• aim is to end child abuse and help children who have been abused
• open membership
• use TV ads, social media pages, donations and run events like bake sales and marathons
• successes/current campaigns: protecting 16 and 17 year olds from abuse, brought about law that police can charge adults that send sexual messages to children

Occupy movement:

• aim is to stop social and economic inequality and bring about social justice
• use social media to co-ordinate events e.g conference calls on skype, livestreams and mainstream media
• had a campaign to Occupy Wall Street- failed as it didn’t achieve anything long term legislation-wise
• opposition from police, law and govt