[PAPER 1] Ideologies

Question 1

Where do Conservatives agree on Human Nature?

Answer 1

• humans are imperfect, insecure and limited e.g Thomas Hobbes argues humans are needy and vulnerable
• cannot be changed by economic, social or political conditions
• without firm justice system and firm govt, human behaviour will deteriorate e.g Hobbes- freedom without order and authority would have disastrous consequences
• believe that ideas like equality and fraternity will not curb humans’ aggressive instincts
• most believe capitalism is the only viable economic system because humans are competitive and are self-interested e.g Thomas Hobbes argues people will compete violently to get the basic necessities of life

Question 2

Where do Conservatives disagree on Human Nature?

Answer 2

• Neo-liberal conservatives believe in atomistic individualism and that humans can be rational and self-reliant e.g Robert Nozick argues humans are individuals with their own abilities and talents

Question 3

Where do Conservatives agree on Society?

Answer 3

• believe in pragmatism and that any change may disrupt society e.g Edmund Burke argued revolutionary change threatened to cut off society’s ‘roots’ which would lead to social and political breakdown
• most believe in natural hierarchy and paternalism, people with more power and higher status should look after people of lower status, believe that people should have security of knowing their place in society
• also believe in tradition, people should pass down knowledge and practices through generations e.g Edmund Burke argued that that tradition represents tried and tested wisdom of the past which should be respected

Question 4

Where do Conservatives disagree on Society?

Answer 4

• Traditional and One Nation conservatives have an organic view of society - argue all parts of society work together to ensure a healthy ‘social body’
• Neo-Liberals reject the idea of ‘natural hierarchy’ and paternalism, they view society as composed of individuals in a free market e.g Robert Nozick argued individuals have rights and they cannot be used as a resource against their own will. Ayn Rand argued any attempt to control an individual’s actions will corrupt the capacity of that person to work freely as a productive member of society

Question 5

Where do Conservatives agree on State?

Answer 5

• Conservatives believe in pragmatism (decisions based on what works) and so Conservatives would want this same approach with the state, no drastic change from government e.g Edmund Burke argued revolutionary change threatened to cut off society’s ‘roots’
• Conservatives also believe in hierarchy and paternalism, therefore would believe that the state should make decisions on behalf of others in society and should help people in lower positions

Question 6

Where do Conservatives disagree on State?

Answer 6

• One-Nation believe the state is neutral
  e. g Edmund Burke argued the state resembled a plant that may be changed when necessary through gentle ‘pruning’- pragmatism
• One Nation also believe the state’s role is to preserve social order through welfare programmes and defence of traditional values
  e. g Thomas Hobbes argued the state should have absolute authority and people should submit to the state
• Neo-Liberals call for rolling back the state because it interferes with economic growth
  e. g Robert Nozick argued the only type of state that can be justified is a minimal or ‘night watchman’ state- restricted but has power to prevent crime
• Neo-Conservatives agree the state’s role in economy should be reduced, also call for a ‘strong state’ to combat crime

Question 7

Where do Conservatives agree on Economy?

Answer 7

• all Conservatives favour capitalism and private enterprise
• Neo-Liberals and Neo-Conservatives both argue that the state’s role in the economy should be reduced e.g Ayn Rand rejected government welfare and wealth distribution programmes

Question 8

Where do Conservatives disagree on Economy?

Answer 8

• One-Nation believe in state welfare programmes to maintain high employment and to avoid drawbacks of collectivism and social instability e.g Benjamin Disraeli argued that there should be reforms to improve conditions for the poorest in society because these would reduce likelihood of social discontent
• Neo-Conservatives and Neo-Liberals argue state’s role in economy should be reduced, neo-liberals call for a free market economy and argue it is the best mechanism to meet consumer demand e.g Ayn Rand called for an ‘uncontrolled, unregulated laissez-faire economy’ and arguing it was morally superior because it respects individual’s pursuit of rational self-interest. e.g Robert Nozick believed in the ‘Night watchman state’ and opposed taxation and welfare programmes

Question 9

Where do Liberals agree on Human Nature?

Answer 9

• all Liberals believe people are rational individuals capable of making their own decisions and pursuing their own interests without being guided by the state or church e.g Mary Wollstonecraft argued that women are rational, independent beings who should have legal independence
• they believe people should be free to make the most of their talents, enjoying equality and opportunity- linked to Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism where society should make everyone happy and argued that humans have desire to avoid pain

Question 10

Where do Liberals disagree on Human Nature?

Answer 10

• Classical liberals believe people should be restricted only when there is risk of them threatening the freedom of others e.g John Stuart Mill harm principle said individuals should be free to do anything, except harm other individuals
• Modern liberals are more conscious of social injustice and favour some state intervention to combat this e.g John Rawls argued that a just society should aim to minimise the difference between outcomes of the best off and the poorest

Question 11

Where do Liberals agree on Society?

Answer 11

• believe society is a collection of individuals, people should have individual freedom and society should aim to make every individual flourish
• believe in meritocracy where individuals are able to succeed through their own hard work and ability
• believe in foundational equality where everyone is born equal and has the same opportunities also believe in formal equality, the idea that individuals have the same legal and political rights in society e.g Mary Wollstonecraft wanted women to have this, be able to enjoy full civil liberties and have a career
• believe that individuals should be free to make their own choices

Question 12

Where do Liberals disagree on Society?

Answer 12

• Classical Liberals downplayed the importance of society and say it is just a collection of individuals pursuing their own interests. They advocated for the concept of meritocracy- individuals succeed through their own ability and hard work. They also believe in foundational equality- individuals are born equal and formal equality- individuals are entitled to the same rights. e.g Mary Wollstonecraft wanted women to have formal equality and believed women were no less rational than men, therefore entitled to the same rights
• Modern liberals believe this isn’t enough to guarantee equality. Some argue state assistance is needed to combat poverty and enable people to flourish and for a fair society to develop e.g Betty Friedan argued for wider opportunities for women and for a change in attitudes in favour of greater equality between the sexes. John Rawls argued that a just society should aim to minimise the difference between outcomes of the best off and the poorest

Question 13

Where do Liberals agree on State?

Answer 13

• all believe in the social contract - idea that the sate is based on the agreement of the people who choose to give up some freedom in return for security e.g John Locke argued state and government are based on the social contract- government should fulfil its part of the contract and protect property rights and should not interfere in the area of private conscience
• Liberals believe in limited government with checks and balances to prevent abuse of power, they don’t want the state to deprive people of their civil liberties, everyone is an individual and state should not interfere with that
• Liberals often support decentralisation of power so authority is dispersed between different levels of government

Question 14

Where do Liberals disagree on State?

Answer 14

• Classical liberals believe the state should serve the individual e.g John Locke argued government should be limited and based on consent from below. Believe in the mechanistic theory- people created the state to serve them and act in their interests
• Liberals in the 18th and 19th century believed in laissez-faire capitalism- free market, no state intervention, goods exchanged for profit and wealth is privately owned e.g John Locke argued the role of government should be limited to not exploit people
• Modern Liberals may disagree with this, believe the state should have more intervention to help poorer people in society through welfare programmes. Believe in the enabling state- helping poor people achieve their potential through welfare programmes e.g John Rawls argued that society should aim to minimise difference between the rich and poor, this should be reflected in the state with welfare programmes

Question 15

Where do Liberals agree on Economy?

Answer 15

• Liberals agree in a limited state role in economy
• all argue humans should have freedom- links to classical liberals’ idea of laissez-faire economy- govt should not intervene
• all believe humans are individuals, believe in free market economy where individuals have freedom

Question 16

Where do Liberals disagree on Economy?

Answer 16

• Classical Liberals’ emphasis on the individual led to a belief in laissez-faire, free market capitalism- economy is best when there is limited state intervention e.g John Locke called for a limited government which shouldn’t abuse people’s rights
• Modern Liberals were more conscious of failings of the free market and argued state intervention is necessary to promote growth and limit injustice e.g John Rawls argued argued that a just society should aim to minimise the difference between outcomes of the best off and the poorest

Question 17

Where do Socialists agree on Human Nature?

Answer 17

• all socialists believe people are social creatures who are rational. They argue people naturally prefer to work together rather than compete with one another. e.g Marx and Engels argued that humans are sociable, rational and co-operative, capable of leading satisfying lives based on fulfilling work
• believe in co-operation and common humanity which enables humans to have connections and harness capabilities of a community or society
• believe in collectivism and fraternity- humans share a common outlook because they share the same basic needs and interests so humans are capable of common ownership and equality- equality reinforces collectivism as humans are more likely to co-exist if they share the same social and economic conditions
• argue that equality is a means of satisfying human needs that are part of human nature

Question 18

Where do Socialists disagree on Human Nature?

Answer 18

• Marxist socialists believe the true co-operative instincts of humans can only be liberated through removal of the oppressive Capitalist system e.g Karl Marx believed that under Capitalism, individuals cannot realise their potential and the solution is a Communist society that abolishes private property and class differences
• Evolutionary socialists believe that human potential can be helped by the state with welfare programmes to help worse off people e.g Anthony Crosland argued that the aim of socialism was to deliver social justice and greater social equality

Question 19

Where do Socialists agree on Society?

Answer 19

• believe that society is characterised by class inequality, economic divisions and disparities in property and ownership- capitalism causes this
• believe in equality and want to eradicate differences in class and wealth
• believe in co-operation and common ownership- society should work together and share resources
• believe that workers should have control in society e.g with increased trade union power this can bring about some reform in capitalist societies

Question 20

Where do Socialists disagree on Society?

Answer 20

• Marxists argue that Capitalist society is dominated by class conflict between the ruling bourgeoisie and the proletariat. They believe only Communism can deliver a stable and unified society e.g Marx and Engels argued that only under a Communist society where private property and class divisions are abolished, individuals can become a fully developed person and realise their potential
• Marxists put a lot more emphasis on the importance of social class- there will only be equality in society when the state is overthrown in a revolution where class differences are replaced by a classless society
• Social democrats accept inequalities exist but they argue these social differences can be reduced through peaceful improvements like welfare and re-distribution schemes e.g Anthony Crosland called for expansion of comprehensive secondary education where children of all abilities and social backgrounds would share similar experiences
• social democrats don’t put as much emphasis on class and emphasise income differences between manual and non-manual occupation groups, argue state can help narrow but not remove class distinctions
• Neo-revisionists reject the traditional socialist emphasis on class distinction and stress harmony, consensus and social inclusion e.g Anthony Giddens argued everyone needed an equal opportunity and called for state intervention to stop widening inequality

Question 21

Where do Socialists agree on State?

Answer 21

• Some Socialists believe in very limited state to reduce class oppression however a centralised state has been used in both Marxist and State Socialist regimes in order to organise production, distribution and to control their populations
• Socialists believe in collectivism- people working together can achieve their political, social and economic objectives by working together, this should be reflected in State with people working together to achieve their goals and help others in society
• believe that workers should take control of state- some argue it should be replaced by a federation of trade unions

Question 22

Where do Socialists disagree on State?

Answer 22

• Marxist socialists regard the state as the instrument of class oppression and that under Capitalism, the bourgeoisie dominate over the proletariat. They believe the state will wither away once Communism has established a classless society. e.g Marx and Engels argue that people have to be ‘class conscious and that the proletariat has to become a ‘class for itself’, aware of its own interests and determined to pursue them
• Social democrats argue that limited state intervention can safeguard the public and remedy the shortcomings of capitalism e.g Anthony Crosland argued that the main aim of socialism was to manage Capitalism to promote greater social equality and social justice.
• Third way/Neo-revisionists are sceptical towards the state and argue that ‘top down’ state intervention is inefficient and ineffective. State should focus on investment in infrastructure and education to improve job opportunities e.g Anthony Giddens rejected state intervention, arguing that ‘top down’ intervention was ineffective and he wanted a free market economy, he argued that the role of the state was in infrastructure and education not economic and social engineering

Question 23

Where do Socialists agree on Economy?

Answer 23

• most call for some form of intervention or planning of the economy because they argue that a free market cannot allocate wealth and resources fairly e.g Beatrice Webb recognised that central state action would further the development of socialism
• most call for an economy based on common ownership where humans share resources and production is based on human need
• argue that the free market cannot allocate resources and wealth fairly to all members in society- link to belief in equality
• economic inequality is not due to differences of ability but due to the inequalities of a capitalist system- in order to uphold equality in the economy capitalism must be overturned
• argue that workers should have control of economy as they are key in the production process- workers’ control aims to dilute or end capitalist control

Question 24

Where do Socialists disagree on Economy?

Answer 24

• Marxists want to replace Capitalism with a centrally planned economy based on common ownership. They argue that Communism is the only economic system that will work and that under Communism, economic production will be determined by human need, people will become developed and co-operate with others e.g Rosa Luxemburg argued that any evolutionary strategy would leave the capitalist system of economic exploitation intact
• Social democrats accept a degree of free market Capitalism and favour a mixed economy, they also endorse Keynesian techniques to regulate Capitalism and maintain employment. They also support welfare policies to redistribute wealth. e.g Beatrice Webb argues state expansion is necessary to deliver socialism such as local authorities providing utilities. e.g Anthony Crosland advocated for Keynesian economics with high employment and low inflation
• Neo-revisionists accept the free market since they believe it is the most efficient system of production. They also reject state intervention in the economy because they believe it discourages investment e.g Anthony Giddens argued the free market was the most effective and efficient system of economy