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Psychology > Paper 1 - Memory > Flashcards

Paper 1 - Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

what is coding?

A

the format in which information is stored in the different types of memory stores

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2
Q

What did BADDELEY find in his study?

A
  • people struggle to remember acoustically similar words in STM but not LTM
  • but semantically similar words caused problems in LTM but were easy in STM
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3
Q

STM is encoded …

A

acoustically

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4
Q

LTM is encoded …

A

semantically

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5
Q

what is capacity

A

the amount of information that can be held in a memory store

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6
Q

What did JACOBS find out about digit and letter span

A

digits - 9.3
letters - 7.3
- could be because there are only 9 numbers but 26 letters

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7
Q

What did MILLER say about chunking

A

magic number is 7+/- 2

  • people can recall 5 words and letters
  • brain can only cope with 6 chunks
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8
Q

what is duration

A

the length of time information can be held in memory

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9
Q

who did a study on duration of short term memory and what was it

A

PETERSON & PETERSON

  • 24 students using nonsense trigrams(TPX)
  • asked to count back from 3 to prevent maintenance rehearsal
  • 90% correct after 3 secs
  • 20% correct after 9 secs
  • 2% correct after 18 secs
    • STM has a very short duration( 18 secs)
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10
Q

who did a study on duration of LTM and what was it

A

BAHRICK
- 400 ppts aged 17-74 on memory of classmates
- showed them yearbooks
- those who left within 15 years
–> 90% correct with faces –> 60% with names
- those who left within 48 years
–> 70% correct with faces –> 30% with names
shows that LTM lasts for a very long time

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11
Q

EVALUATION of coding

A

Limitation
- artificial stimuli –> he used artificial stimuli rather than meaningful words. so should be cautious when generalising findings as it has limited application

  • STM may not be exclusively acoustic
    BRANDIMOTE - has visual coding
  • LTM may not be exclusively semantic
    NELSON & ROTHBART - found evidence of acoustic coding in LTM
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12
Q

EVALUATION of capacity

A

Limitation

  • lacking validity –> it was conducted a long time ago so may lack adequate control
  • some ppts may have been distracted - confounding variables not controlled

not so many chunks –> MILLER may have overestimated the capacity of STM.
- COWAN said that it was only 4 chunks so may be on the lower end of his estimate(5) of the magic number

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13
Q

EVALUATION of duration

A

Limitation
- meaningless stimuli in STM study –> was artificial and trying to remember consonant syllables doesn’t reflect real life ** lacks external validity**

Strength

  • BAHRICKS study has high external validity as real life meaningful memories were studied.
  • SHEPHERD - did a LTM study with meaningless pictures and recall rates were lower
  • -> ** confounding variables can’t be controlled and ppts may look at their yearbooks more than once over the years**
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14
Q

who came up with the multi store memory model?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin

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15
Q

what is the stimulus from the environment?

A

things all around us - hear, see, smell, taste and feel

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16
Q

what is the sensory register?

A

has two main stores

  • iconic - visual
  • echoic - acoustic
    • duration is less than half a second and capacity is high
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17
Q

what is maintenance rehearsal?

A

occurs when we repeat/ rehearse something to ourselves. keep the info in STM as long as its rehearsed. once rehearsed long enough it passes to the LTM

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18
Q

LTM in MSM

A
  • can be limitless

- when we want to recall info from LTM to use it, this is RETRIEVAL

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19
Q

EVALUATION OF MSM

A

Strength
- supporting research evidence - studies that show that LTM & STM are qualitatively different - BADDELEYS study shows that we mixed them up so there must be two separate independent stores

Limitation
- more than one type of STM - evidence from people suffering with amnesia shows that it cannot be a unitary store.
SHALLICE & WARRINGTON - studied KF who had amnesia and found that in his STM - digits were poor when they read to him, but his recall was much better when reading digits to himself.
** could be another store for non verbal sounds(noises)

there is more than one type of rehearsal - it matters the amount of rehearsal you do
CRAIG & WATKINS - found that this prediction was wrong as it matters more the type
maintenance rehearsal - does not transfer into LTM it just maintains it in the STM
** elaborative rehearsal is needed for LT storage - which occurs when you link the info to your existing knowledge or you think about what it means
–> this is a research finding that cannot be explained by the model - major limitation

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20
Q

what are the three types of LTM?

A

1) episodic
2) semantic
3) procedural

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21
Q

what is episodic memory?

A

like a diary, memories are time stamped and are retrieved consciously
e.g. holidays, birthdays etc

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22
Q

what is semantic memory?

A

like an encyclopaedia/dictionary, facts and knowledge, retrieved consciously
e.g. what an orange tastes like, what the capital of France is

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23
Q

what is procedural memory?

A

skills/ actions, can do things WITHOUT conscious effort

e.g. like driving a car or tying a shoelace

24
Q

EVAUATION of types of LTM

A

Strength
- clinical evidence - HM & Clive Wearing
episodic memory in both was severely impaired because of amnesia, they had difficulty remembering things from their past but semantic and procedural memories were relatively unaffected –> Clive could still play piano
** this evidence supports Tulvings view that there are many different memory stores in LTM -> stored in different parts of the brain

  • neuroimaging evidence - brain scan evidence
    TULVING - got ppts to do tasks while using a PET scanner
    –> found that episodic and semantic memories both from prefrontal cortex
    episodic - left procedural - right
  • supports the validity of this finding
  • real life applications
    being able to identify different aspects of LTM allows researchers to target certain areas to better their lives
    BELLEVILLE - said episodic memories could be improved in older people who had mild cognitive impairment
  • they trained ppts and they performed better on a test of episodic memory after training than a control group.
  • this enables a specific treatment to be developed*
25
Q

what is the working memory model?

A

an explanation of how one aspect of memory(STM) is organised and how it functions

26
Q

what are the 4 components of the WMM

A

1) central executive
2) phonological loop
3) visuo spatial sketchpad
4) episodic buffer

27
Q

what is the role of the central executive?

A

an attentional process that monitors incoming data and makes decisions and allocates tasks to slave systems
- it has very limited processing capacity

28
Q

what is the role of the phonological loop?

A
  • deals with auditory info and preserves the order in which the info arrives
    divided into
    1) phonological store - stores the words that you hear
    2) articulatory processes - allows maintenance rehearsal, capacity is believed to be two seconds
29
Q

what is the role of the visuo spatial sketchpad?

A
  • stores visual and spatial info
  • it has limited capacity - BADDELEY - 3-4 objects
  • LOGIE subdivided into
    1) the visual cache - stores visual data
    2) the inner scribe - records the arrangement of objects in the visual field
30
Q

EVALUATION of Working Memory Model

A

Strength
- clinical evidence - SHALLICE & WARRINGTON
KF patient suffered brain damage. He had poor STM ability for verbal info but could process visual info normally -> suggests that the phonological loop had been damaged but other areas were still in tact
** supports existence of a separate visual and acoustic store.
–> however patients with brain damage may not be reliable because it concerns unique cases who have had traumatic experiences

Limitations
- lack of clarity over the central executive
cognitive psychologists suggests this component of WMM is unsatisfactory and doesn’t really explain anything
BADDELEY - the CE needs to be more clearly specified than just being simply attention. some psychologists think it ma consist of separate components
** this means it hasn’t been fully explained

31
Q

what is forgetting : interference?

A

occurs when two pieces of info conflict with each other causing memories to be distorted or forgotten

32
Q

what are the two types of interference?

A

1) proactive

2) retroactive

33
Q

what is proactive interference?

A

occurs when an older memory interferes with a new

e.g. teacher has remembered so many names in the past that she struggles to remember names of the current class

34
Q

what is retroactive interference?

A

occurs when a newer memory interferes with the old

e.g. teacher has remembered so many names this year she cant remember ones from the past

35
Q

what happens in interference when the memories are similar?

A

interference is worse when two memories are similar
MCGEOCH & MCDONALD - changed the amount of similarities between 2 materials
ppts had to learn 10 words with 100% accuracy - 6 different types of lists - when participants recalled original list of words, performance depended on nature of second list. similar material - worst recall

36
Q

EVALUATION of forgetting interference

A

Strength

  • Evidence from lab studies - 1000’s of lab studies have been carried out which shows that both types interference are very likely to be common ways we forget in LTM
  • strength -> control effects of irrelevant influences - valid explanation

Limitation

  • artificial stimuli - much greater chance that interference will be demonstrated in a lab than in real life situations
  • -> because the stimulus used is mostly lists of words and does not reflect real life
  • -> makes interference more likely
37
Q

what is forgetting : retrieval failure

A

occurs when we don’t have the necessary cues to access memory. the memory is available but not accessible unless cue is provided

38
Q

encoding specificity principle (ESP)

A

TULVING - reviewed research into retrieval failure and found patterns.
ESP - states that if a cue helps us recall info it has to be present when we learn the material and also at retrieval
*if the cues at encoding/retrieval are different there will be some forgetting

39
Q

what is context dependent forgetting?

A

the improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same

40
Q

what was the study done for context dependent forgetting?

A

GODDEN & BADDELEY –> deep sea diver study
divers had to learn a list of words either on land or underwater and then recall on land or underwater
** accurate recall was 40% lower in non matching conditions because the cues at learning were different when retrieving

41
Q

what is state dependent forgetting?

A

State-dependent memory or state-dependent learning is the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.

42
Q

what was the study for state dependent forgetting?

A

CARTER & CASSADAY –> gave anti histamine drugs to ppts
this made them slightly drowsy which creates a different state from being normal/awake
ppts had to learn and then recall a list of words
** more forgetting if alert when learning but drowsy when recalling *

43
Q

EVALUATION of retrieval failure

A

Strength
- supporting evidence
two studies that support retrieval failure - increases validity of explanation and especially in real life situations

Limitation
- questioning context effects
BADDELEY - argues that the two contexts will have to be very different before an effect is seen

44
Q

what are leading questions?

A

a question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer

45
Q

what was the study done by LOFTUS & PALMER?

A 
ppts watched films of car accidents and were asked the critical question "about how fast were the cars going when they 'hit' each other?" 
the verb 'hit' suggests the speed of the car
5 groups were each given different verbs
1) hit
2) contacted --> 31.8mph av
3) bumped
4) smashed -->40.5mph av
5) collided
  • -> did a 2nd experiment - WORDING of a leading question can change a ppts memory of a clip
  • -> ppts who heard smash were more likely to report broken glass
46
Q

what is post event discussion?

A

more than one witness at an event, so they discuss what they saw, influencing others memory

47
Q

what was the study done by GABBERT?

A

ppts in pairs who watched the clip of a crime but from different perspectives * could see things others couldnt

  • they tested on what they saw individually
  • researchers found 71% mistakenly recalled events compared to 0% in a control group
  • witnesses often go along with each other (NSI/ISI)
  • -> memory conformity
48
Q

Evaluation of Misleading information

A

useful real life application - practical uses in the real world, where consequences of EWT can be serious
e.g police officers –> can help improve the way the legal system works

tasks are artificial - watching a clip is different from witnessing a car accident in real life

individual differences - older people may be less accurate than younger people

49
Q

what is the definition of anxiety?

A

a state of physical emotional arousal

50
Q

weapon focus effect

A

creates an arousal in our body which prevents us from paying attention to important cues

51
Q

what was the study JOHNSON & SCOTT did on weapon focus effect

A
  • ppts were in a waiting room and heard an argument in the next room
  • low anxiety condition - man walked through with pen & grease
  • high anxiety condition - heard breaking glass and holding knife and blood
  • -> ppts picked out man from 50 pics
  • 49% from low condition correct
  • 33% from high condition correct (tunnel theory)
52
Q

fight or flight response

A

increases alertness and improves memory

53
Q

what was the study done by YUILLE & CUTSHALL on positive effects of anxiety

A

*real life shooting in gun shop in Canada
- 21 witnesses - 13 agreed to take part in study
interviewed 4-5 months after and they compared them to original interviews at the time
- also had to rate their stress level on a 7 point scale
* witnesses were very accurate and there was little change in accuracy over the 5 months

54
Q

what is the Yerkes Dodson Law

A

lower levels of anxiety = low levels of recall, memory becomes more accurate as anxiety increases but only up til a certain point

55
Q

Evaluation of effects of anxiety

A

weapon focus effect may not be relevant - it may test surprise rather than anxiety
PICKEL- study with scissors, hand gun, wallet or raw chicken in hairdressers
- eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in high unusualness conditions
–> weapon focus is due to unusualness rather than anxiety

field studies lack control - in between interviews, witnesses will have experiences nobody can control
–> extraneous variables may be responsible for lack of recall

ethical issues - ppts may be subject to psychological harm
–> in real life they can study people who have already witnessed a crime

Psychology (11 decks)

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