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EOS > Paleobiology > Flashcards

Paleobiology Flashcards

1
Q

Paleontology / Paleobiology definition

A

study of ancient life

science of the forms of life existing in former geologic periods- represented by their fossils

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2
Q

Geology

A

geo- earth, logia/logos- study of

the study of Earth

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3
Q

studies earth material- minerals and rocks

processes operating within and on earth

A

physical geology

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4
Q

examines origin and solution of earths continents, atmosphere, oceans, and life

A

historical geology

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5
Q

system

A

combination of related parts that interact

biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere

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6
Q

determined that what are now mountains used to be the sea by the fact that mountain rocks contained shells

A

Leonardo da Vinci 1452-1519

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7
Q

demonstrated that fossils represent remains of ancient animals

A

Niels Stenson / Nicholas Steno (1638 - 1686)

shark teeth

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8
Q

previously called tongue stone

A

glossopetrae (sharks teeth)

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9
Q

recognized that fossil record showed species appearances and extinctions

A

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

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10
Q

Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)

A

Father of vertebrate palaeontology and catastrophism

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11
Q

catastrophism

A

history of earth can be explained by sudden catastrophic events

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12
Q

uniformitarianism

A

the assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe now have always operated in the universe in the past

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13
Q

fossil

A

the remains or impression of a prehistoric organism preserved in petrified form or as a mold or cast in rock

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14
Q

Why fossils are important

A 
simple fascination
paleogeography
paleoecology
evolution
biostratigraphy
economics
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15
Q

compression

A

still contains parts of original organism

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16
Q

where can fossils be found

A

sediment, sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks, concretions/nodules

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17
Q

led to continental drift theories

A

paleogeography

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18
Q

paleogeography

A

environmental and physical restrictions to organism distribution

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19
Q

why fossils are important for evolution

A

fossils are the only direct record of the history of life

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20
Q

use of fossils in deducing succession and age relations, and dating sediments

A

biostratigraphy

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21
Q

index fossils must be

A 
easily recognizable 
short stratigraphic range
easily preserved (hard parts)
worldwide/cosmopolitan distribution
rapidly evolving
abundant
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22
Q

an index fossil with a shorter stratigraphic range

A

gives more precise dating

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23
Q

economic fossils

A 
chalk deposits
ammonites for building structure
dolomite mountains
fossil fuels ( coal, oil, gas)
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24
Q

rudist

A

cretaceous reefs with high porosity and permeability, important for reservoirs and caps

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25
Q

process of fossilization

study of preservation

A

taphonomy

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26
Q

types of preservation

A

body fossils
molds and cast
ichnofossils

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27
Q

types of body fossils

A

unaltered remains

altered remains

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28
Q

unaltered remains happen

A

in unique environments where mechanical processes do not break down organisms

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29
Q

methods in which fossil organism may retain colour

A

freezing

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30
Q

types of unaltered remains preservation

A

Freezing
Drying/ desiccation
Amber/ tar/ wax/ asphalt

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31
Q

oldest fossil you could find from freezing

A

Quaternary

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32
Q

original materials for fossilization

A

CaCO3, Si, Apetite (calcium phosphate; teeth), chiton, cellulose, resistant organic substances (pollenin)

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33
Q

average ocean salinity

A

35ppt

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34
Q

photic zone

A

up to ~200m

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35
Q

freshwater salinity

A

<0.5ppt

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36
Q

brackish water salinity

A

5-30ppt

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37
Q

frozen fossils have

A

everything preserved - even internal organs

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38
Q

shore zone between high and low tide

A

littoral zone

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39
Q

below tide to edge of continental shelf, most diverse zone due to high nutrients and light

A

sublittoral zone

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40
Q

drifters, passive floaters

A

plankton

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41
Q

active swimmers

A

nekton

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42
Q

from continental shelf to abyssal plains

A

bathyal zone

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43
Q

benthic organisms on hard substrate

A

Epifaunal

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44
Q

benthic organisms on/in soft substrate

A

Infaunal (burrowing)

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45
Q

extract nutrients from sediment

A

deposit feeders

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46
Q

mobile marine organisms

A

vagile

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47
Q

immobile marine organisms

A

sessile

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48
Q

primary producers

A

cyanobacteria, algae

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49
Q

herbivores

A

gastropods

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50
Q

deposit feeders

A

gastropods, bivalves

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51
Q

suspension feeders

A

bivalves, crinoid

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52
Q

Amber fossils are mostly

A

insects
from tertiary
from baltic region

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53
Q

types of altered body fossils

A

permineralization
recrystallization
replacement
carbonization

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54
Q

another name for permineralization

A

petrification

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55
Q

permineralization

A

porous material fills with groundwater
original material not involved
heavier than original material

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56
Q

most common permineralization

A

wood

Si fills pores

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57
Q

recrystallization

A

hard parts revert to more stable minerals or larger crystals

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58
Q

example of recrystallization

A

aragonite—- calcite

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59
Q

in dissolution and replacement, hard parts are replaced by

A

calcite, silica, pyrite, iron

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60
Q

pyritization occurs in

A

anoxic environments

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61
Q

example of dissolution and replacement

A

ammonite turns from iridescent/ mother or pearl – pyrite

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62
Q

another name for carbonization

A

coalification

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63
Q

carbonization

A

only carbon remains, all other elements are removed, makes fossil appear black, organisms outline remains well preserved

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64
Q

common carbonization

A

organic rich shales, sandstones

plants (ferns), graptolites, fish

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65
Q

external / internal cavity

A

mould

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66
Q

filled in mould

A

cast

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67
Q

compression

A

2D shallow external molds that often display plant structures. retain original/chemically unaltered organic materials

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68
Q

impression

A

2D, no organic material, found in fine-grained sediment like clay or silt, commonly trace fossils, give insight into biological activity of organisms

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69
Q

tell more about organism behaviour than about the organism

A

trace fossils

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70
Q

types of trace fossils

A 
tracks
trails
exogenic /endogenic trace fossil
coprolite
gastrolite
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71
Q

study of trace fossils

A

ichnology

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72
Q

vertebrate trace fossils

A

tracks

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73
Q

invertebrate trace fossils

A

trails

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74
Q

exogenic trace fossils

A

made on the surface of sediment (tracks)

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75
Q

endogenic trace fossils

A

made within the sediment (burrows)

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76
Q

fossilized poop

A

coprolite

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77
Q

fossilized digestive stones + stomach contents

A

gastrolites

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78
Q

only really distinct coprolite

A

sharks - swirly

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79
Q

coprolites & gastrolites tell

A

about diet not much else

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80
Q

set of trace fossils associated with a particular set of environmental conditions

A

ichnofacies

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81
Q

common / important ichnofacies

A

nereites, zoophycos, cruziana, skolithos, glossifungites, trypanites, teredolites

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82
Q

Nereites

A

deep marine ichnofacies

spiral, flower, sinuous, honeycomb

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83
Q

zoophycos

A

outer shelf - slope, low E muds, organic rich,

3D feeding trace (burrow, tube)

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84
Q

cruziana

A

shallow marine shelf- upper slope

unidirectional, continuous, crawling trace

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85
Q

skolithos

A 
shallow, near shore
vertical burrows (dwellings)
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86
Q

Glossifungites

A

in firm - not lithified- sediment (mud, silt), marine intertidal and shallow
plant root penetration, borings, burrows

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87
Q

Teredolites

A

borings in wood by bivalves

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88
Q

grazing traces are

A

very sinuous

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89
Q

resting fossil is

A

a depression in substrate

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90
Q

Trypanites

A

in hard substrate

predators (worms, bivalves, gastropods, barnacles) bore holes in corral, rock, shells

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91
Q

trace fossils characterized by behaviour

A

resting, dwelling, escape traces, moving, grazing, deposit feeding

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92
Q

pseudofossils

A

dendrites
concretion / nodules
solutioning

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93
Q

chemical / molecular fossils

A

chlorophyll, lipids
molecule characteristic of cyanobacteria found before earth was oxygenated
steranes evidence of eukaryotic life up to 1 billion years before they enter fossil records

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94
Q

dendrites

A

manganese, iron, tree like branching

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95
Q

how would bones be preserved

A

likely permineralization (porous)

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96
Q

how would teeth be preserved

A

likely recrystallization (solid)

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97
Q

preservation dependent on decay and mineralization

A

decay vs. mineralization, both must be minimum for soft parts to be conserved
mineralized muscle— tissue— chitin— cellulose— shells

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98
Q

steps of taphonomy

A

necrolysis
biostratinomy
diagenesis

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99
Q

necrolysis

A

decay and decomp., from death to right before break up

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100
Q

biostratinomy

A

mechanical processes, before burial

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101
Q

diagenesis

A

mechanical, physical, chemical, and biological changes after burial

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102
Q

biocenosis

A

life assemblage, interacting organisms in a habitat

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103
Q

thanatocenosis

A

assemblage of organisms brought together after death

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104
Q

taphonomic filter

A

more and more information is lost with every step, some organisms are lost throughout filter

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105
Q

most resiliant bones

A

lower jaw, skull

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106
Q

physical diagenesis

A

compaction, deformation

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107
Q

chemical diagenesis

A

dissolution, recrystallization, replacement

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108
Q

biological diagenesis

A

bacterial decomposition (early stages)

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109
Q

how settling of bivalves can tell about environment

A

if they land concave up and stay that way it must have been a low energy environment

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110
Q

elongate minerals/fossils settle in what direction

A

parallel to shore

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111
Q

important for determining compaction/deformation

A

cleavage- to not mistake as elongate fossils

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112
Q

missing from fossil record

A 
organisms without hard parts
organisms from unpreserved environments
organisms rare or geographically restricted
habitat info
behaviour
living morphology
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113
Q

how organisms with hard parts can be lost from record

A

if soft parts are all that distinguishes them from organisms with similar hard parts

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114
Q

lost habitat info

A

ex. elephant bones found in a lake- they don’t live there!

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115
Q

unpreserved environments

A

high latitudes (erosional environments)

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116
Q

communities lost from fossil record

A

only the biggest, strongest organisms are likely to survive, rare for young

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117
Q

material changed/moved due to erosion/reposition of sediment

A

reworking

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118
Q

reworking occurs by

A

lateral transport
storm/currents
bioturbation

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119
Q

examples of reworking

A

taxa ABC are eroded together- appear to have lived at same time but did not
2 halves of bivalve end up on different ends of beach
kelp beds end up on beach
sedimentation rate is so low that taxa ABC are deposited basically together

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120
Q

when a taxa disappears and then reappears although it never died

A

Lazarus taxa

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121
Q

lazarus taxa occurs due to

A

preservation issues
environmental changes
species endangerment

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122
Q

zombie effect

A

taxa ‘reappears’ after it has become extinct due to reworking

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123
Q

example of zombie effect

A

if an ammonite fossil surfaced now, but was reburied, and then resurfaced in the future

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124
Q

Elvis taxa

A

impersonating, morphologically similar organism to those before

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125
Q

Important for determining zombie effect

A

heat/colour alteration- sequence of colour change is irreversible, determines true age

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126
Q

how complete is the fossil record

A

> 97% is not preserved

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127
Q

preservation favours which environment

A

marine (and some aquatic)

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128
Q

‘motherload’ of fossils

A

Lagerstratten

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129
Q

two types of Lagerstratten

A

Konzentrat

Konservat

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130
Q

Concentration deposits

A

Konzentrat
concentrated but not best preservation
large number of fossils, low preservation of minute details

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131
Q

types of Konservat

A

Stagnation deposits
Obrution deposits
Conservation traps

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132
Q

Konservat deposits

A

best type of preservation, fine minute details are preserved

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133
Q

Stagnation deposits

A

stagnant water
supersaline
lagoonal
limits bacterial degredation (‘pickled’)

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134
Q

Conservation trap

A

Amber
tar pits
low decomposition

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135
Q

Obrution deposits

A

Organisms from normally not preserved environments are preserved
Burgess Shale- large chunk of shelf slid deeper

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136
Q

Biasis of fossil record

A 
rapid burial
anoxic/hypersaline condition
no/minimal reworking or diagenesis
tissue resistant to decay
organisms in low energy environment
marine organisms
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137
Q

grouping of objects or information based on similarities

A

classification

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138
Q

taxonomy

A

branch of biology concerned with the grouping and naming of organisms based on their similarities, chemical make up, similarities

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139
Q

by observing patterns we can

A

deduce factors that control organism distribution

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140
Q

six major kingdoms represented by fossil record

A 
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia
Protista (uni/multi cellular)
Archaeobacteria
Eubacteria
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141
Q

extremophiles

A

Archaebacteria- live in harsh environments (anaerobic, hyper saline, sulfurous hot spring)

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142
Q

cyanobacteria

A

filamentous, less tolerant than Archaebacteria

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143
Q

Protists

A

protozoans- dinoflagellates,diatom, foraminifera

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144
Q

Fungi act as

A

decomposers

parasites

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145
Q

kingdom Fungi includes

A

molds
mildew
mushrooms
yeast

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146
Q

plant evolution

A

green algae–spore plants (mosses)—vascular plants (ferns)— seed plants (gymnosperms, angiosperms)

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147
Q

living organisms are classified by

A

binomial system of nomenclature

Linnaean system

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148
Q

Species

A

can interbreed and produce viable offspring
basic unit of classification
organisms with structural, functional, developmental similarities
have unique two-part names

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149
Q

capitalized

A

genus name not species

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150
Q

italicized or underlined

A

genus and species

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151
Q

Classification hierarchy for plants

A 
Kingdom 
Division
Class
Order
Family
Genus 
Species
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152
Q

classification hierarchy for animals

A 
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
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153
Q

mnemonic for classification hierarchy for animals

A

King Phillip Came Over From Great Spain

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154
Q

Paleontological species

A

based on similarities in morphology rather than genetic compatibility

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155
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

speciation that occurs when populations become isolated to an extent that prevents genetic interchange

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156
Q

sympatric speciation

A

one population slowly diverges from main population while still living in same area- don’t interbreed

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157
Q

Which speciation is easier to deal with in fossil record

A

Allopatric

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158
Q

Allopatric speciation can occur either

A

symmetrically or asymmetrically

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159
Q

Phyletic gradualism

A

theory that evolution is gradual at a ~constant rate

speciation occurs as slow gradual change

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160
Q

punctuated equilibrium

A

theory that periods of evolutionary equilibrium are interrupted by episodes of rapid evolutionary change
rapid change– relative stasis– rapid change–…

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161
Q

lineages show little evolution

A

punctuated equilibrium (stasis)

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162
Q

evolution takes place in lineages

A

phyletic gradualism

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163
Q

speciation is a side effect of evolution

A

phyletic gradualism

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164
Q

change in individual morphology during lifespan

A

ontogenesis

can compare species embryos

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165
Q

group of individuals of same species in an area

A

population

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166
Q

all populations of all species living in an area

A

community

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167
Q

a community and its abiotic environment

A

ecosystem

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168
Q

types of variation in organisms populations

A

ecophenotypic variation
taphonomic variability
sexual dimorphism
copes rule

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169
Q

ecophenotypic variation

A

change due to environment- nutrient, light, temperature

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170
Q

taphonomic variability

A

distortion after death (biocenosis vs. thenatocenosis)

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171
Q

biocenosis

A

describes the interacting organisms living together in a habitat

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172
Q

thanatocenosis

A

death assemblage

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173
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

phenotypic variation between males and females of species

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174
Q

cope’s rule

A

body size increases during evolution of a group of animals

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175
Q

types of skeletal growth

A

accretion
addition
molting
modification

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176
Q

Accretion skeletal growth

A

adding on discrete growth layers to the skeleton as organism grows
ex. corrals add layers every day, bivalves

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177
Q

recognizing sexual dimorphism

A

analogs to living organisms ex.antlers
geographic time/location- F/M wouldn’t be thousands of years apart in record
Ratio ~50/50 M/F
similarity at early life stages

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178
Q

Addition skeletal growth

A

adding discrete new parts which grow very little after formed
ammonite, foraminifera (chambers)

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179
Q

Modification skeletal growth

A

continuous remodeling and adding to existing skeletal elements- mammals

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180
Q

Molting skeletal growth

A

shedding of exoskeleton- trilobite, crabs

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181
Q

Steno’s three laws for sedimentary rocks

A

Principle of superposition
Principle of original horizontality
Principle of original lateral continuity

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182
Q

Physical principles of relative age

A

Principle of superposition, original horizontality, original continuity, cross cutting relations, inclusion, recorded history, unconformities, fossil succession, fossil correlation

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183
Q

principle of superposition

A

youngest strata is on top

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184
Q

principle of original horizontality

A

sediment is deposited in horizontal layers due to gravity

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185
Q

principle of original lateral continuity

A

continuity is preserved from one environment to the next

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186
Q

principle of recorded history

A

using known facts to date (ex. volcano eruption)

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187
Q

1986 peak in Cs level

A

chernobyl

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188
Q

principle of unconformities

A

surfaces of erosion or non-deposition (hiatus) include significant amounts of geologic time

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189
Q

principle of fossil succession

A

oldest fossils in a series of sedimentary rock layers will be found in the lowest layer

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190
Q

principle of fossil correlation

A

similar assemblages of fossils are of similar age and therefore the strata containing them are of similar ages

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191
Q

chronology of events in Earth history established on basis of obtaining ages of past events

A

Geological Time Scale

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192
Q

chronometers

A

radioactive elements

can measure up to ~7 half lives

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193
Q

if radioactive element has long half life

A

not able to measure daughter products in young materials

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194
Q

if radioactive elements have short half lives

A

cannot measure daughter product beyond certain time

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195
Q

elements for absolute dating

A

Pb210

Cs137

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196
Q

Pb210

A

good for <120year old sediment

half life 22.3 years

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197
Q

Eons

A

Phanerozoic
Proterozoic
Archean
Hadean

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198
Q

Phanerozoic

A

visible life

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199
Q

Proterozoic

A

early life

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200
Q

Archean

A

ancient life

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201
Q

Hadean

A

greek mythological hell (Hades)

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202
Q

~90% of earth history

A

Precambrian: Proterozoic + Archaen + Hadean

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203
Q

Era

A

precambrian
paleozoic
mesozoic
cenozoic

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204
Q

Period mnemonic

A

camels often sit down carefully perhaps their joints creek TQ

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205
Q

geological time- periods

A

cambrian, ordovician, silurian, devonian, carboniferous, permian, triassic, jurassic, cretaceous, tertiary, quaternary

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206
Q

we no classify carboniferous as

A

upper- Pennsylvanian

lower- Mississippian

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207
Q

biozone

A

body of rock whose lower and upper boundaries are based on the range of one or more taxa

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208
Q

at well established geological time boundaries there are

A

golden spikes

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209
Q

what defines biozone boundaries

A

large extinctions

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210
Q

no fossil records or rocks of

A

Hadean

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211
Q

epoch time unit

A

early/middle/late

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212
Q

epoch time-rock unit

A

lower/middle/upper

Lower Devonian rocks represent Early Devonian time

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213
Q

history of Earth

A

4.6 billion years

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214
Q

time of Hadean

A

4.6-3.8bya

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215
Q

time of Archaen

A

3.8-2.5bya

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216
Q

time of Proterozoic

A

2.5bya

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217
Q

time of Cambrian

A

542mya

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218
Q

time of Silurian

A

444mya

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219
Q

time of carboniferous

A

360-250mya

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220
Q

time of mesozoic

A

250-65mya

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221
Q

time of tertiary

A

65-2.6mya

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222
Q

time of quaternary

A

2.6mya-present

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223
Q

time of cenozoic

A

65mya-present

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224
Q

by end of Archean

A

earth had an atmosphere, greenhouse gases, plate tectonics, life

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225
Q

evidence of Precambrian life

A

morphological fossils (black chert)
stromatolites
chemical fossils

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226
Q

chemical fossils

A

C12/C13 ratios, organisms preferentially take up lighter C12

Pristane/phytane evidence of photosynthesis

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227
Q

prokaryote size

A

~10µm

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228
Q

how long was all life on earth bacterial

A

~2bya

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229
Q

beginnings of life on earth

A

Isua formation of greenland
Warrawoona group
fig tree formation
gunflint cherts

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230
Q

Isua Formation of Greenland

A

3.85bya, oldest altered sedimentary rocks, geochemical indicators, carbon isotopes

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231
Q

Warrawoona Group

A

Apex chert, Western Australia, 3.5bya, stromatolites, six types of filaments

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232
Q

Fig Tree Formation

A

3.4bya, South Africa, cyanobacteria filaments associated with stromatolites, light carbon isotope ratios, pristine and phytane in cherts

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233
Q

Gunflint cherts

A

Canada, 2.1bya, stromatolites, black cherts, chemical fossils, diverse prokaryotes, numerous bacteria types

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234
Q

oncolite

A

similar to stromatolites, instead of forming columns, they form spherical structures, often form around central nucleus, shell fragment, and calcium carbonate structure is deposited by encrusting microbes

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235
Q

most likely origin of life

A

hydrothermal vents (chemoautotrophs)

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236
Q

first life

A

early archaen

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237
Q

why hydrothermal vents are a likely source of life

A

abundant energy/mineral supply
ocean protects from UV
many prokaryotes live near vents

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238
Q

needed for life to occur

A

cellular structure
metabolic assimilation of energy
reproduction
heredity

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239
Q

origin of life theories

A

creation
extra terrestrial
spontaneous generation
inorganic model

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240
Q

inorganic model

A

genetic material evolved first in association with clay minerals and organic compounds were involved only later

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241
Q

hydrogen oxidation

A

2H2 + O2 —- 2H2O + energy

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242
Q

sulfur reduction

A

S + H2 – H2S + energy

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243
Q

methane production

A

CO2 + 4H2 – CH4 + 2H2O + energy

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244
Q

first photosynthesizer

A

cyanobacteria

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245
Q

kingdoms in Archean

A

archeobacteria

eubacteria

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246
Q

free oxygen (Tertiary atmosphere)

A

2.5-26mya

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247
Q

BIFs

A

interbedded chert and iron rich minerals (Fe sulphides, Fe carbonates)
need low level oxygen (precambrian)

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248
Q

BIFs first appear

A

3.8BYA (more common in proterozoic)

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249
Q

BIFs rare after

A

1.9BYA

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250
Q

indications of higher levels of oxygen

A

stromatolites

eukaryotes

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251
Q

oxygen ‘sinks’ start to fill up and O2 can accumulate in atmosphere

A

~2BYA

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252
Q

Proterozoic eon life

A

2.5-0.5BYA
evolution of complex eukaryotes
first multicellular life
evolution of sexual reproduction

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253
Q

origin of eukaryotes

A

2-1.8BYA

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254
Q

origin of sexual reproduction

A

1.1BYA

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255
Q

origin of multicellular life

A

~0.7BYA

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256
Q

evidence of Proterozoic evolution

A

gunflint chert

bitter springs chert

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257
Q

Rodinia

A

supercontinent ‘motherland’

1.2BYA-600MYA

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258
Q

Breakup of Rodinia

A

snowball/ slush ball earth

extinction- glaciation prevents light

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259
Q

Ediacara fauna

A 
also Vendian (soft-bodied animals)
developed movement, symmetry
very thin, up to 1m
some anoxic species- maybe symbiosis
possibly leathery
no predation, filtering/grazing
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260
Q

Ediacaran phytoplankton

A

Acritarchs- main primary producer after cyanobacteria
organic walled, unknown affinity
resistant to dissolution

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261
Q

Cloudina sp.

A

first skeletal fossil (Ediacaran)
CaCo3, CaPO4, tube dwelling worm
Pre-late Cambrian

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262
Q

Tommotian Fauna

A 
small shelly fossils
CaPO4
first evidence of predation (protective pieces)
evidence of competition (grew taller)
1-5mm
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263
Q

Cambria diversification

A 
continents split up, new ecological niches, sea level changes, expanded cont. shelf, warm water, transgression
all phyla (except bryozoa) appear VERY rapidly
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264
Q

transgression

A

sea level rises- shoreline moves inland- mud deposited directly on old beach sand

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265
Q

cambrian life

A

many more shelled species
decreased stromatolite abundance
all phyla (except bryozoa) appear VERY rapidly
most major invertebrate classes

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266
Q

hard part advantages

A

protection from UV- can move to shallow water
prevents drying in intertidal pool
predation protection
support

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267
Q

hard part disadvantage

A

energy of molting

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268
Q

Archaeocyathid

A

sponges, appear in Tommotian (early Cambrian)
extinct by mid Cambrian
1-3cm diameter, 15cm tall
cone-in-cone structure, pores, central cavity
calcareous skeleton
benthic, sessile, colonial or individual

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269
Q

excellent indicator of early Cambrian

A

Archaeocyaths- only marine, benthic, sessile, passive filter feeders in 20-100m water depth of tropic carbonate shelves

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270
Q

Kingdom, phylum, subphylum of trilobite

A

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Trilobitomorpha
Class: Trilobita

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271
Q

Trilobite time frame

A 
only in Paleozoic
extremely common in Cambrian and Ordovician
early Cambrian- end of Permian
8/9 orders appeared in Cambrian
15,000 species
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272
Q

Trilobite exoskeleton

A

calcite

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273
Q

main index fossil of cambrian

A

trilobite

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274
Q

Major body parts of trilobite

A

Cephalon, Thorax, Pygidium

Pleural lobes, axial lobe

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275
Q

evolutionary trends of trilobites

A

greatly elongated to transverse (widened)
thoracic segments increased (60) or reduced (2)
reduction/loss of eyes

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276
Q

Effacement

A

adaptation related to a burrowing lifestyle

smoothing out of lines for burrowing (or streamlined swimming)

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277
Q

Spinosity

A

defensive/stabilizing adaptation

can tell modality from direction spines stick out

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278
Q

pelagic trilobite morphologies

A

extremely large eyes

streamlined bodies

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279
Q

olenimorph

A

forms associated with low O2, high sulfur benthic habitat

thin exoskeleton, increased thoracic segments, wide flat body, symbiotic behaviour

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280
Q

why wide flat body in olenimorph

A

larger surface area : water interface for material exchange

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281
Q

environment changes for trilobites mostly related to

A

temperature changes- largest effect in shallow water

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282
Q

Burgess Shale

A

mid Cambrian
quick burial, anoxic conditions
soft parts preserved
~93 soft bodied organisms

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283
Q

one of the first large predators (seen in Burgess shale)

A

Anomalocaris canadensis (sea horse kinda shape)
can tell predator from distinct bite marks in trilobites
up to 60cm

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284
Q

earliest chordate

A

Pikaia

~5cm, nodochord, zigzag muscles attached to nodochord

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285
Q

Burgess shale organism that was incorrectly reconstructed (upside down)

A

Hallucigenia

~1cm long, protective spikes on back

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286
Q

why explosion in Cambrian

A 
few predators
increased atmospheric oxygen
sea level rise (many habitats)
evolution of hard skeleton
higher nutrient levels
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287
Q

parts of evolutionary faunas graph

A

mud grabbers–stationary filter feeders–mobile filter feeders–soft bodied organisms
1-5 large extinction
plateau in cambrian- max # of species that can live on mud substrate, need grow taller evolution
majority of species diversification at end of Cambrian

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288
Q

cambrian fauna

A

trilobite fauna

mainly trilobites, also echinoderms, brachiopods

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289
Q

paleozoic fauna

A

brachiopod fauna

brachiopods, bryozoans, graptolites, cephalopods, crinoids

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290
Q

Ordovician changes

A 
485-443mya
north of tropics open ocean
most land masses southern supercontinent, Gondwana
O2 at modern levels
flooding of continents
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291
Q

Ordovician radiation

A

150 families in Cambrian

400 families in Ordovician

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292
Q

sediment changes from Cambrian-ordovician

A

Cambrian flat planar beds

Ordovician bioturbated, by upper Ordovician can’t tell bedding planes

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293
Q

Tiering

A

increase height and depth in substrate

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294
Q

Conodonts

A

worm like forms with teeth, CaPO4, change colour in irreversible way, CAI, teeth not attached to jaw
marine, free swimming, pelagic and nektobenthic predators, carnivores or scavengers

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295
Q

conodont phylum

A

EITHER Hemichordata or Chordata (uncertain)

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296
Q

conodont importance

A

extinct in Triassic, good for dating between triassic/jurassic, if find conodonts KNOW its not Jurassic

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297
Q

conodont morphotypes

A

coniform
ramiform
pectiniform

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298
Q

coniform

A

single cone or cusp with small basal cavity

299
Q

ramiform

A

bars with central cusp and denticles

300
Q

pectiniform

A

diverse forms bearing a platform and numerous denticles

301
Q

graptolites name

A

graptos - written

lithos - rock

302
Q

graptolite colonies

A

multiple filter feeders float/fixed
rapid evolution
index fossil for Ordovician

303
Q

‘arms’ of graptolite

A

stipes

304
Q

‘spikes’ of graptolite

A

thecae

305
Q

length of both ‘arms’ of graptolite

A

rhabdosome

306
Q

mid point of graptolite

A

sicula

307
Q

graptolite phylum

A

Hemichordata

308
Q

graptolite class

A

Graptolithina

309
Q

Graptolite orders

A

Order Dendroidea

Order Graptoloidea

310
Q

Dendroidea persistence

A

mid Cambrian - Carboniferous

311
Q

Graptoloidea persistence

A

Ordovician - mid-Devonian

312
Q

Graptolite features

A 
exclusively marine
rapid evolution
abundant
excellent biostratigraphic indices of Ordovician and Silurian
Pelagic or benthic
mostly preserved as thin carbon films
313
Q

sponge phylum

A

Porifera

no symmetry, holdfast, can reassemble, pores, flagella, spicules

314
Q

levels of complexity in sponges

A

Ascon– Sycon– Leucon

Ascon most common

315
Q

sponge classes

A

Class Hexactinellida
Class Calcarea
Class Demospongia
Class Sclerospongea

316
Q

types of sponge spicules

A

Megascleres-monaxons, triaxons, tetraxons, polyaxon

Microscleres

317
Q

Hexactinellida

A

Neoproterozoic- resent
Always glass (siliceous)
Six rays (at 90º in cubic symmetry)
~10cm, diverse, abundant, cool, deep water

318
Q

Calcarea

A 
Cambrian- resent
calcareous or organic
spicules- monaxon, tetraxon, star-shaped, tuning-fork shaped, all shapes
significant late Paleozoic reef builders
max. diversity in Cretaceous
warm shallow water (above CCD)
indicator of paleoclimate
319
Q

Demospongia

A

Cambrian- resent
‘everything else’
siliceous spicules and/or protein spongin
spicules- tetraxon, monaxon, knobby, desmas, irregular
never 90º
larger, more solid, heavier in deeper water, lighter in shallow water

320
Q

Class Sclerospongea

A 
Stromatoporoids spp.
calcareous
Ordovician-Cretaceous- or resent?
thought to be extinct
calcareous skeletons, domes >5m
laminae look like stromatolite, less deformity
canal with star shape on surface of bump
321
Q

graptolite preservation

A

carbonization, pyritization
fine grain sandstone/shale, low energy
carbonization is flat- no internal structure
pyritization can give 3D structure- fills up parts

322
Q

evolution of graptolites

A

highest diversity in Ordovician

fewer branches down to 1 by silurian-devonian

323
Q

types of sponge spicules

A

sponginin, silica, calcium carbonate

324
Q

‘other’ reef builders

A

corrals

325
Q

another name for phylum Cnidaria

A

Coelenterata

326
Q

what Cnidaria means

A

cnidos- stinging nettle

327
Q

Phylum Cnidaria classes

A

Hydrozoa- polyps, hydras
Scyphozoa- jellyfish
Anthozoa- sea anemones, corals, sea fans, sea pens

328
Q

Class Anthozoa persistance

A

Precambrian-recent

329
Q

Class Anthozoa orders

A

Tabulata
Rugosa
Scleractinia

330
Q

Tabulata persistance

A

Ordovician-Permian

Prominent reef builders: S-D

331
Q

Rugosa persistance

A

Ordovician-Permian

Reefs: S-D

332
Q

Scleractinia persistance

A

mid Triassic- recent

prominent reef builders: late T-J-C

333
Q

Order Tabulata

A

calcite structure, plates perpendicular to height, honeycomb appearance, continuous structure, ALWAYS colonial, small-absent septa

334
Q

Order Rugosa

A

horn-shaped, solitary or colonial, mostly calcite, some aragonite, well developed septum, curl up from sea floor, accrete layer every day, 4 ray symmetry (6 in 4)

335
Q

Rugosa + Tabulata

A 
same time (o-p)
same area
no holdfast
low energy 
unlikely to have had symbionts
336
Q

Order Scleractinia

A

solitary and colonial, 6-ray symmetry (6 in 6), polyps fused into long, meandering rows, still present, only aragonite, some zooxanthellae

337
Q

corral symbiont

A

zooxanthellae

338
Q

corals as climate indicators

A

isotherm ~21º

339
Q

Class Scyphozoa persistance

A

Precambrian- present

340
Q

Sub-classes of Anthozoa

A

Octocorallians

Zoantharia

341
Q

Phylum Cnidaria, Class Anthozoa, Sub-class Octocorallians, Orders

A

Scleractinia
Rugosa
Tabulata

342
Q

calcite ocean Mg/Ca mole ratio

A

<2
High Mg Calcite 1-2
Low-Mg calcite 0-1

343
Q

aragonite ocean Mg/Ca mole ratio

A

2-6

344
Q

high spreading rates =

A

ridge volume large
calcite seas
Mg:Ca ~1

345
Q

calcite sea persistence

A

Cambrian - mid Mississipian

Cretaceous-Ng

346
Q

Aragonite sea persistence

A

Mid Mississippian- Cretaceous

347
Q

Cambrian reef builder

A

Archaeocyathans

348
Q

Ordovician to Permian reef builder

A

Tabulate corrals

Stromatoporoids

349
Q

low spreading rate

A

small ridge volume

aragonite sea

350
Q

lophophore

A

ciliated feeding structure near mouth

351
Q

have a lophophore

A

bryozoans

brachiopods

352
Q

Phylum Bryozoa persistence

A

Ordovician - present

353
Q

Bryozoa characteristics

A

aquatic (marine/fresh), mostly interconnected colonies, small, sessile, lophophore, shallow water, aragonite or arag.-calcite mix or chitin

354
Q

Phylum Bryozoa classes

A

Phylactolaemata
Stenolaemata
Gymnolaemata

355
Q

Class Phylactolaemata persistence

A

Cretaceous- Recent

356
Q

Class Stenolaemata persistence

A

Ordovician- recent

357
Q

Class Gymnolaemata persistence

A

Ordovician- recent

358
Q

phylactolaemata

A

freshwater, no skeleton

359
Q

stenolaemata

A

marine, circular lophophore, tubular skeleton

360
Q

gymnolaemata

A

circular lophophore, box-like/saclike skeleton

361
Q

bryozoa shape dependence on environment energy

A

Discoid- high energy
Branching- low (lagoonal)
Encrusting- low-mod
Fenestrated (spiral)- moderate

362
Q

lamp shells

A

phylum brachiopoda

363
Q

Phylum Brachiopoda persistence

A

Cambrian-present

364
Q

Brachiopoda characteristics

A

two valves, solitary filter feeder, lophophore, marine, intertidal-abyssal (usually shelf), plane of symmetry bisects shell, sessile, bottom dweller, free-living or rooted (infernal/epifaunal)

365
Q

brachiopod dorsal valve

A

brachial valve

366
Q

brachiopod ventral valve

A

pedicle valve

367
Q

smaller brachiopod valve

A

Brachial valve (‘hole’ for pedicle)

368
Q

brachiopod muscles

A

adductor muscle

diductor muscle

369
Q

opening/closing brachiopod valves

A

open when diductor muscle is tightened

370
Q

Brachiopoda classes

A

Class Inarticulata

Class Articulata

371
Q

Inarticulata

A

CaPO4 shells, no teeth along hinge, infernal, functional anus, common in Cambrian

372
Q

how inarticulata move up and down in burrow

A

hydrostatic pressure

373
Q

Articulata

A

Calcite shells, teeth in sockets along hinge, no anus, bilaterally symmetrical shells, dominate Ordovician

374
Q

Paleozoic fauna

A

articulate brachiopods, stony and lacy bryozoans, graptolites, stromatoporoids, cephalopods, crinoids

375
Q

stromatoporoids reef building

A

silurian-devonian

376
Q

stromatolite reef building

A

Archean- proterozoic

377
Q

First precambrian fossil ever discovered

A

Charnia_ lived deep in the ocean where light could not reach
no mouth or gut but filtered nutrients/particles from water

378
Q

Death assemblage

A

Thanatocenosis

379
Q

Obrution

A

A rapid burial or smothering event

380
Q

Life assemblage

A

Biocenosis

381
Q

Parts of geological time scale from left to right

A

Eon
Era
Period
Epoch

382
Q

evolutionary faunas

A

cambrian fauna
paleozoic fauna
modern fauna

383
Q

modern fauna

A

bivalve-gastropod fauna

384
Q

modern fauna organisms

A

bivalves, gastropods, vertebrates, echinoids, crustaceans

385
Q

mollusca

A

soft body

386
Q

phylum mollusca presence

A

precambrian? Cambrian-recent

387
Q

phylum mollusca morphology

A

usually elongate, bilateral symmetry, mantle secretes shell, radula, one way gut, muscular foot, concentrated sensory organs in head (except bivalve), eyes, usually gills, sexual reproduction

388
Q

radula

A

minutely toothed, chitinous ribbon, which is typically used for scraping or cutting food before the food enters the oesophagus

389
Q

mollusca mode of life

A

marine/freshwater/terrestrial

390
Q

Phylum mollusca classes

A 
Amphineura
Scaphopoda
Gastropoda
Bivalvia
Cephalopoda
Rostroconchia
391
Q

Class Amphineura

A

polyplacophora, monoplascophora

chitons

392
Q

Amphineura characteristics

A

primitive, univalve shell, benthic, algal/bacterial grazers

Polyplacophora- 8 CaCO3 valves, girdle around valves

393
Q

Amphineura strat range

A

Cambrian-Holocene

394
Q

Class Scaphopoda

A

tusk shaped univalve shell open at both ends, lack gills, infernal, deposit feeder, rare in fossil record, few cm’s

395
Q

Scaphopoda strat range

A

Ordovician - recent

396
Q

changes in class Scaphopoda

A

Carboniferous- long, skinny, dirty white
Miocene- shorter, fatter, whiter, ribbed
Eocene- shorter, black

397
Q

Bivalve class

A

Pelecypoda (axe foot)

or Lamellibranchs

398
Q

Bivalve features

A

two valves, calcite/aragonite, bilateral symmetry, indistinct head, distinct foot, tentacles and eyes absent, sexual reproduction, ligament

399
Q

Bivalve strat range

A

Cambrian - recent

400
Q

Bivalve environment

A

marine or lacustrine

401
Q

Bivalve ligament

A

horny elastic structure joining two valves dorsally and acting as a spring that causes the valves to open when adductor muscles relax

402
Q

umbo

A

most prominent, highest part of bivalve shell, usually contains the valve’s beak, the oldest point (earliest formed) of the valve

403
Q

determining left/right valve

A

labeled with respect to the anterior end of the bivalve, when the umbones are facing upward
by viewing posterior (siphons) end

404
Q

Bivalve classifications based on teeth and sockets

A

Taxodonts
Heterodonts
Isodonts
Dysodonts

405
Q

Taxodonts

A

numerous, small teeth, subparallel or radial arrangement

406
Q

Dysodonts

A

small simple teeth, near edges of valve, teeth not distinct

Devonian- recent

407
Q

Isodont

A

very large teeth, either side of central ligament pit

408
Q

Heterodont

A

2-3 cardinal teeth below jumbo, elongated lateral teeth

most Tertiary-recent bivalves are of this type

409
Q

Rudist

A

extinct bivalves
2 different sized/shaped shells
sessile, solitary or reef like masses

410
Q

Rudist bivalve strat range

A

Jurassic- Cretaceous

411
Q

Bivalve life modes

A

mostly filter feeders
Infaunal: Burrowing, boring
Epifaunal: byssally attached, reclining, cemented, swimming

412
Q

byssally attached

A

attached to substrate by byssal threads

413
Q

reclining

A

lying immobile and unattached to sea floor

414
Q

cemented

A

attached to substrate by secreted shell material

415
Q

Burrowing bivalve morphology

A

equal size/shape valves
2 adductor scars equal in size
distinct pallial line

416
Q

Boring bivalve morphology

A

thicker, equal valves, cylindrical in X-section

some have ridges and stout spines, other tubular in form

417
Q

semi infaunal bivalve

A

elongate, fan-like, reduced anterior area

ex. pen shells, modiolids, ark shells

418
Q

Class Bivalvia, Subclass Pteromorphia, Genus Inoceramus

A

most diverse in Jurassic-Cretaceous

species ranged ~0.2-0.5Ma

419
Q

number of gastropod species

A

40,000 - 100,000

420
Q

gastropoda habitats

A

marine/lacustrine/terrestrial

421
Q

Gastropoda features

A

mostly herbivores, some carnivores, univalved shell, distinctive head, eyes, tentacles, radula; 180º torted body (anus above head), sexual reproduction

422
Q

Gastropoda strat range

A

Cambrian - present

423
Q

gastropod means

A

stomache - foot

424
Q

Gastropod shell geometry

A

trochospiral / planispiral

425
Q

Trochospiral

A

shell coiled in more than one plane

426
Q

planispiral

A

coiled in a single plane

427
Q

Gastropoda columella

A

little column or pillar, central anatomical feature of coiled shell, often only visible when shell is broken, sliced in half, or x-rayed, runs from apex of shell to midpoint of undersurface

428
Q

class Gastropoda subclasses

A

Prosobranchia
Opisthobranchia
Pulmonata

429
Q

important bivalves for stratigraphy

A

Rudist

Inoceramus

430
Q

likes like Rugosa, but no septa

A

Rudist bivalve

431
Q

difference between Gastropod and Cephalopod

A

Cephalopods have partitioned shells (chambers)

432
Q

meaning of Cephalopod

A

head-foot

433
Q

Cephalopod characteristics

A

all predators, tentacles, eyes, partitioned shells, no or univalve shell, organized nervous system

434
Q

cephalopod mode of life

A

marine, nektonic (jet propulsion)

435
Q

Cephalopods of interest

A

nautiloids, ammonites, belemnites

436
Q

cephalopod strat range

A

late cambrian- present

rapid initial evolutions

437
Q

Phylum Molluska Class Cephalopoda subclasses

A

Nautiloidea
Ammonoidea
Coleoidea

438
Q

Nautiloidea strat range

A

late Cambrian- recent

439
Q

nautiloidea special features

A

simple suture pattern- straight to gentle curve, septate shell, well developed eye, leathery hood covers eye, siphuncle, jaws, radula, tentacles, hyponome, gills

440
Q

first common large predator

A

Nautiloidea

441
Q

septate shell

A

chambered

442
Q

nautiloidea life mode

A

nektonic (0-600m)

443
Q

protoconch

A

first chamber

444
Q

conch

A

whole shell

445
Q

phragmocone

A

external chambered shell

all chambers except living chamber

446
Q

one chamber of conch

A

camera

447
Q

separate camera in nautiloid conch

A

septum

448
Q

septum

A

internal partition which separates the chambers

449
Q

connection of septum to outer wall of conch

A

sutures (under top layer of shell)

450
Q

tube connecting living chamber with all previous chambers of nautilus/ammonoid

A

siphuncle

451
Q

Nautilus siphuncle

A

middle

452
Q

siphuncle use

A

connects all chambers in order to change their buoyancy

453
Q

living chamber

A

space between aperture and last septum

454
Q

hyponome

A

expels water, locomotive force

455
Q

nautilus ‘shapes’

A

Orthoconic
Cyrtoconic
Gyroconic
Nautilicone

456
Q

orthoconic

A

totally straight, pointy shell

457
Q

cyrtoconic

A

tip is more curved than orthoconic

458
Q

gyrocone

A

curved shells, from single curve to multiple coils

459
Q

Ammonoidea features

A

complex sutures, siphuncle, widespread, index fossil, chambered shell

460
Q

ammonoid siphuncle

A

present at ventral side (not middle)

461
Q

ammonoid strat range

A

Devonian - Cretaceous

**Important index fossil (pelagic)

462
Q

if direction of aperture is up, a lobe in the suture would be a

A

U

463
Q

if direction of aperture is down, a saddle in the suture pattern would be

A

n

464
Q

Types of ammonoid suture patterns

A

ammonitic
ceratitic
goniatitic
orthoceratitic

465
Q

Ammonites have

A

ammonitic sutures

466
Q

orthoceratitic

A

Cambrian- recent

practically straight suture lines

467
Q

goniatitic

A

devonian - permian

smooth suture line, angular lobe/saddles

468
Q

ceratitic

A

Carboniferous- Triassic

rounded saddles, serrated lobes

469
Q

ammonitic

A

Permian - Cretaceous

complex lobes and saddles, dendritic

470
Q

cephalopod shell morphology types (curving)

A

Involute
Convolute
Evolute

471
Q

involute cephalopod shell

A

hiding the baby coils, living chamber covers initial chambers

472
Q

convolute cephalopod shell

A

shell partly encloses preceding whorls

baby centre is partially exposed

473
Q

evolute cephalopod shell

A

baby centre is completely exposed

living chamber does not cover any old chambers

474
Q

shape of shell is important for

A

centre of gravity

475
Q

ammonoid keel

A

thickening along outer margin

like a rim down the outer middle

476
Q

ammonoid ribs/ornamentation

A

thickening of external shell in ‘ribs’

not necessarily coinciding with sutures

477
Q

ornamentation and keel are for

A

balance and protection

478
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

microconchs

macrcoconchs

479
Q

macroconch

A

female ammonoid, larger (for egg production)

480
Q

microconch

A

male, smaller, long thin piece of shell at end of living chamber

481
Q

aptychi

A

two-valved closing hatch (hood) on ammonite

calcite (ammonite shell is aragonite)

482
Q

animals in Subclass Coleoidea

A

squids, cuddlefish, octopus belemnites

483
Q

Coleoidea features

A

internal or lacking skeleton, orthoconic, marine, siphuncle, phragmocone, beak, gills

484
Q

belemnites

A

2 parts: well preserved rostrum, phragmocone

bullet shaped, pointy, no chambers, siphon, typical middle groove

485
Q

belemnite strat range

A

Devonian - Cretaceous

abundant Jurassic - Cretaceous

486
Q

why belemnite fossils are usually found in large groups

A

large mortalities; anoxic conditions, inside of plesiosaurus

487
Q

example of coleoidea

A

belemnite

488
Q

the branch of palaeontology dealing with the study of microscopic fossils

A

micropaleontology

489
Q

three main branches of paleontology

A

micropaleontology
macropaleontology
ichnology

490
Q

what makes microfossils useful for stratigraphic correlation

A

abundance, abundance, abundance, widespread (large distribution), sediment cores are not wide (lower chance of macrofossil), preservable, short start range (high accuracy in dating), have distinct forms (identifiable)

491
Q

2 main groups of microfossils

A

‘plant like’

‘animal like’

492
Q

plant like microfossils

A

diatoms, silicoflafellates, coccolithophores, dinoflagellates, acritarchs, pollen and spores

493
Q

animal like microfossils

A

conodonts, ostracods, foraminifera, radiolarian

494
Q

Kingdom Protista, autotroph divisions

A

Pyrrophyta
Chrysophyta
Cholorphyta

495
Q

Division Chryophyta classes

A

Chrysophyceae
Bacillariophyceae
Coccolithophyceae

496
Q

Bacillariophyceae

A

Diatoms

497
Q

two groups of diatoms

A

Pennales

Centrales

498
Q

diatom morphology

A

unicellular, planktonic, siliceous frustule, 2 valves, 20-200µm, autotrophic

499
Q

diatom mode of life

A

every aquatic environment, benthic and planktonic (photic zone), individual or colonial

500
Q

pennales diatom

A

bilaterally symmetric
raphe: elongate fissure down middle
mostly benthic
Oligocene- Recent

501
Q

centrales diatom

A 
radially symmetric
ornamentation: striations, pores, spines, punctuations
mostly planktonic
form chains
Upper Jerassic?- Cretaceous- recent
502
Q

diatom valves

A

epitheca

hypotheca

503
Q

epitheca valve

A

larger, older, outer, girdle elements connected to it

504
Q

hypotheca valve

A

younger, smaller, inner

505
Q

diatom carbon fixing

A

20-25% of all planetary

506
Q

class Chrysophyceae, order Silicoflagellineae

A

marine, flagellate, planktonic, photosyntehtic, opaline interior siliceous test, connected tubular structures

507
Q

silicoflagellate start range

A

cretaceous - recent

508
Q

silicoflagellate test shapes

A

ring like, hexagonal, hemispherical, lattice

509
Q

division Chrysophyceae class coccolithophyceae

A

single celled, very small, 2-20µm calcitic plates (coccoliths), photosynthetic, nanofossils, semi-transparent

510
Q

coccolithophore mode of life

A

planktonic, marine, photic zone, narrow temperature range- warm water, 45ºN-45ºS

511
Q

coccolith function for coccolithophore

A

protection (bacteria, physical, predator)
flotation/buoyancy (spherical shape)
light regulation (reflect sunlight)
biochemistry (may secrete calcite to expel byproduct, increase biochemical efficiency)

512
Q

coccolithophore strat range

A

upper Triassic- Jurassic- recent

mass extinction at end of cretaceous, adaptive radiation in paleocene

513
Q

major coccolith deposits

A

cretaceous chalk (calcareous ooze)

514
Q

what does it tell you if you find only pelagic diatoms

A

greater depth (too deep for benthic photosynthesizers)

515
Q

ooze

A

> 30% biogenic Si/CaCO3

516
Q

cause of equatorial band of siliceous ooze

A

radiolarians

517
Q

can calcareous ooze be found in the abyssal?

A

yes at MOR, sea mount, etc.. if there are parts of ocean floor above CCD

518
Q

affect of ocean acidification on coccolithophores

A

increases number of/thickness of coccoliths

519
Q

CCD

A

carbonate compensation depth- below which calcareous skeletons dissolve as fast as they fall from above

520
Q

Division Chlorophyta classes

A

Prasinophytes

Chlorophytes

521
Q

Division Chlorophyta class Prasinophyta order

A

Acritarchs

522
Q

Division Chlorophyta class Chlorophytes orders

A

Chlorococcales

Volvocales

523
Q

micropaleontology

A

the branch of palaeontology dealing with the study of microscopic fossils

524
Q

Autotroph divisons

A

Pyrrophyta
Chrysophyta
Chlorophyta

525
Q

Acritarch size

A

average ~40µm

20-150µm

526
Q

Acritarchs are

A

organic-walled phytoplankton of unknown affinity

aquatic (marine)

527
Q

Acritarchs are important for what time period

A

paleozoic (abundant on continental shelves)

528
Q

the study of pollen, spores, and other similar structures (living or fossil)

A

Palynology

529
Q

‘other’ similar structures in palynology

A

palynomorphs

530
Q

palynomorphs

A

animal parts
FOL
algae

531
Q

animal part palynomorphs

A

mandibles of polychaeta

532
Q

FOL

A

foraminiferal organic linings

533
Q

algae palynomorphs

A

freshwater green algae

dinoflagellates

534
Q

middle cretaceous reef builder

A

there is no middle cretaceous

535
Q

when writing the name of a geological time unit

A

don’t forget to include eon, era, period, epoch

536
Q

cross bedding represents

A

shallow marine environment

537
Q

labelling a field map

A

location, formation, geological time

Muir Creek, Sooke Formation, upper Oligocene

538
Q

y-shaped pollen scar

A

contact area- where they were connected

539
Q

gymnosperm pollen

A

winged, looks like mouse head (conifer)

540
Q

dinoflagellate composition

A

mainly organic, some calcareous

541
Q

pyrrophyta

A

dinoflagellates - red tides

542
Q

prior to diatoms, major primary producer

A

acritarchs, cyanobacteria

543
Q

dinoflagellate characteristics

A

20-150µm
auto/hetero/mixotrophic
flagella - migration
most abundant coastal phyto

544
Q

dinoflagellates are most abundant when

A

summer, autumn- following diatom bloom

545
Q

significance of dinoflagellates ability to migrate

A

the environment they are found in is the one they prefer to be in

546
Q

hypnozygote

A

dinoflagellate cyst/ dinocyst
resting cyst resulting from sexual fusion; commonly thick-walled, typically 15 to 100 µm in diameter, often resistant and made out of dinosporin

547
Q

amroured dinflagellates

A

overlapping cellulose plates- armor- theca

548
Q

visual difference between calcareous and organic walled dinoflagellates

A

organic- brownish

calcareous- whitish

549
Q

organic walled dinoflagellate cyst strat range

A

triassic-recent

550
Q

autotrophic dinoflagellates are mostly found

A

offshore (clear/transparent)

551
Q

heterotrophic dinoflagellates are mostly found

A

near shore (darker/brownish)

552
Q

proximity to shore =

A

proximity to nutrients

553
Q

why sea level alters number/type of species

A

proximity to shore..

higher sea level = larger shelf

554
Q

why cenozoic species were not altered by sea level

A

limited by Si

555
Q

Silica input is a function of

A

weathering/erosion

556
Q

dinoflagellate strat range

A

different than cyst range
Cambrian? - Recent
flourish in Mesozoic

557
Q

dinoflag paleoenvironmental reconstruction

A 
coastal/oceanic proximity- sea level change- based on autotroph/heterotroph
surface water T
salinity (precipitations)
paleoproductivity
human impact (pollution, eutrophication)
558
Q

paleozoic phytoplankton

A

acritarchs

559
Q

mesozoic phytoplankton

A

coccoliths

dinoflagellates

560
Q

cenozoic phytoplankton

A

coccoliths
dinoflagellates
diatoms

561
Q

plant like microfossils

A 
diatoms
silicoflagellates
coccolithophores
dinoflagellates
acritarchs
pollen/spores
562
Q

animal like microfossils

A

foraminifera
radiolarians
conodonts
ostracods

563
Q

Heterotroph subphylums

A

Sarcodina

Ciliophora

564
Q

Sarcodina

A

protozoa that move and capture food by pseudopodia

Radiolarians, Foraminifera

565
Q

Radiolarians strat range

A

mid Cambrian - recent

566
Q

Radiolarian characteristics

A

only marine, heterotrophic, some symbiotic, 100-2000µm, siliceous, form chert

567
Q

radiolaria ‘parts’

A

apex, spine, pore, outer/inner sphere, chambered lattice shell, basal mouth

568
Q

radiolaria orders

A

Spummelaria (circular)

Nassellaria (helmet shaped)

569
Q

Spummelarian strat range

A

mid Cambrian - recent

570
Q

Nassellarian strat range

A

Carboniferous- recent

571
Q

deep water radiolarian strat

A

Silurian - recent

572
Q

radiolarians compete for silica with

A

diatoms

573
Q

radiolarian evolution

A

from shallow - deep

skeletons finer and less robust

574
Q

Subclass Rhizopoda strat range

A

Foraminiferida

Cambrian - recent

575
Q

benthic foraminifera

A

Cambrian - recent
agglutinated or calcareous (not below CCD)
some flatter, longer (less spherical)

576
Q

planktonic foraminifera

A

Jurassic -recent
ONLY calcareous
bulbous- floatin
spines- predation, surface area

577
Q

Foraminifera characteristics

A

mostly marine, calcareous/agglutinated/organic

578
Q

Foraminifera are characterized by

A

Test microstructure
Test morphology
Aperture type

579
Q

Test microstructure

A

agglutinated
calcareous
tectin (not usually preserved)

580
Q

agglutinated test

A

composed of grains or fragments of foreign material cemented by organism

581
Q

calcareous test

A

hyaline (glassy/transparent)

porcelainous (white/opaque)

582
Q

origin of biogenic silica

A

radiolarians, sponge spicules

583
Q

foramin means

A

window (pores are like windows)

584
Q

benthic foramin microhabitats graph

A

sediment depth vs. oligo/meso/eutrophic conditions
deep infaunal taxa - don’t live in oligotrophic, deep in meso, shallow in eutrophic (high rate of organic material falling)
oligo- only epifaunal

585
Q

oligotrophic

A

environments that offer little to sustain life

586
Q

eutrophic

A

oversupply of nutrients, explosive growth of plants/algae- die, consume oxygen, hypoxia

587
Q

foram test morphology

A

single chambered, uniserial, biserial, triserial, planispiral, trochospiral

588
Q

uniserial

A

chambers added in a straight fashion (cone shaped with each successive chamber larger than the last)

589
Q

biserial

A

chambers added in alternating fashion (conish/braid or horsetail)

590
Q

triserial

A

chambers added every 120º spiral

591
Q

planispiral

A

chambers coiled in single plane
evolute or involute
like typical ammonoid

592
Q

trochospiral

A

chambers form cone (looks like a flower from the top)

593
Q

earliest foraminifera were

A

benthic, agglutinated, single chambered

594
Q

aperture types

A

open end of tube, radiate, loop shaped, terminal slit, umbilical, iteriomarginal, multiple, with phi aline lip, with bifid tooth, with umbilical teeth

595
Q

large foraminifera

A

fusulinidae

nummulitidae

596
Q

Fusulinids

A

rice grain shaped
paleozoic shallow seas
add chambers along long axis

597
Q

nummulitids

A

coin shaped
planispiral/involute
tertiary

598
Q

evolute/involute

A

space on both sides enclosed by last whorl is termed Umbilicus- wide umbilicus = Evolute, narrow umbilicus = Involute.

599
Q

first appearance of foraminifera

A

early cambrian

600
Q

first multi chambered foraminifera

A

late cambrian

601
Q

mass extinction of forms

A

end of Permian

including fusilinids

602
Q

first planktonic forams

A

early Jurassic

603
Q

extinction of 1/2 of deep water benthic forams

A

end paleocene

604
Q

modern benthic forams evolve

A

middle Miocene

605
Q

foraminiferal inner lining

A

organic, chambers, some have this not all

606
Q

benefits of studying foraminifera

A

small, abundant, geographically distributed, test changes, Camb-Recent, short reproductive cycle, trace elements preserved in test, subject to dissolution

607
Q

benefit of short reproductive cycle

A

represent more precise conditions

more specific dating

608
Q

benefits of being subject to dissolution

A

live at certain depths- more precise

609
Q

foraminifera can be used to determine

A

geologic age
environments
pollution

610
Q

determining environments

A

bathymetry

611
Q

determining pollution

A

tests are altered with pollution/toxicity

612
Q

first land plants

A

late Ordovician

613
Q

basic alga parts

A

holdfast- anchor
support - not needed (water)
photosynthesizing parts - whole plant

614
Q

basic land plant parts

A

roots- anchor, absorb water/minerals
stem- support, photosynthesis
cuticle/stomata- resist desiccation, allow gas exchange
leaf- photosynthesis

615
Q

difficulties moving to land

A

support, desiccation, reproduction, water, nutrients, temperature range, UV

616
Q

plants evolved from

A

green algae- charophyceans

617
Q

vascular tissues

A

transport water/nutrients

provide internal support

618
Q

Bryophytes

A

nonvascular, lack roots, depend on moisture, unique habitat

619
Q

bryophytes strat

A

on land- late Ordovician - Recent

existed in water in Camb

620
Q

seedless vascular plants require

A

water for reproduction

621
Q

seedless vascular plants

A

ferns, horsetails, club mosses

flagellated sperm need water

622
Q

early seedless vascular plant

A

Psilotum- no leaves, no roots
Cooksonia- spores, stomata, no leaves
Rhynia- primitive root, sporangia

623
Q

Ferns

A

need moisture for reproduction, roots, leaves, alternation of generations, spores

624
Q

alternation of generations

A

multicellular haploid gametophyte, alternates with multicellular diploid sporophyte

625
Q

largest Silurian plant

A

Baragwanathia

626
Q

Baragwanathia

A

Lycopod, 30cm-1m, leaves, typical of silurian, spores

627
Q

early-mid-late devonian changes in plants

A

mid- rise of lycopsids- spore bearing trees
spores flammable- large increase of fires
large increase of tree fall in swampy areas– coal formation

628
Q

first trees

A

Archaeopteris
spore bearing, large
Late Devonian, coal source

629
Q

lycopsids

A

up to 30m, branches only at top, leaves similar to palm

630
Q

calamites

A

Sphenopsids (horsetails)

jointed hollow stem, horizontal underground stem-bearing roots

631
Q

gymnosperm

A

naked seed

632
Q

Permian flora

A

gymnosperms- conifers, seed-bearing vascular plants

633
Q

gymnosperm characteristics

A

2 cone types, fertilization independent of water, delayed sporophyte development, dormancy, seed dispersal, germination
Permian - Recent

634
Q

gymnosperm cones

A

Male- sperm- pollen grains

Female- embryonic seeds

635
Q

examples of gymnosperms

A

conifers, ginkgo, cycads

636
Q

meaning of angiosperm

A

covered seed

637
Q

angiosperm strat

A

Early Cretaceous - Recent

638
Q

angiosperm characteristics

A

flowering, fruits with seeds, dominant, grow-regenerate-reproduce faster, most successful/advanced plants, better at surviving grazing

639
Q

angiosperms evolved from

A

ferns

640
Q

insects coevolved with

A

angiosperms

641
Q

evolution of leaves

A

microphylls
megaphylls
symmetry
serration

642
Q

microphylls

A

one vascular trace

643
Q

megaphylls

A

branched vascular trace

644
Q

increased leaf vein symmetry

A

equal strength, support, distribution of water/nutrients

645
Q

gymnosperm present dominance

A

only in high latitudes

646
Q

leaf serration

A

temperate climates- serrated margins

warm/humid climate- smooth margins

647
Q

carboniferous- evolution of

A

gymnosperms

648
Q

cretaceous - evolution of

A

angiosperms

649
Q

oxygen spike in carboniferous

A

evolution of trees

aided in increase of fires

650
Q

Lepidodendron

A

50m tall lycopsid, each part was named separately

651
Q

largest oxygen spike since cambrian

A

late carboniferous

652
Q

lowest CO2 level since Cambrian

A

carboniferous-permian boundary

653
Q

Why do we see patterns of diversity in the fossil record

A

Total rock area (sampling)
Paleontological interest
Fossil preservation

654
Q

Evolutionary faunas

A 
Cambrian fauna (trilobite fauna)
Paleozoic fauna (brachiopod)
Modern fauna (bivalve-gastropod)
655
Q

fraction of energy passed between trophic levels

A

~10%

656
Q

similarities between evolutionary faunas

A

all 3 grew exponentially then plateaued in accordance with niche space

657
Q

Example of how geology influences biology

A

formation of Pangea– PT extinction

658
Q

ocean chemistry - pangea

A

transition to aragonite sea

decrease in calcite dependent organisms

659
Q

high spreading rates =

A

calcite seas

660
Q

average species duration

A

0.5-10 million years

661
Q

background extinction rate

A

~2-4.6 families per MYA

662
Q

red-queen hypothesis

A

must keep running to stay in the same place- organisms must constantly adapt to avoid extinction

663
Q

mass extinction is

A

geologically short intervals of intense species extinction
at least 40%
> 10 M families per year

664
Q

mass extinctions we recognize

A 
Late O
Late D
P-T boundary
Late Tri
K-T boundary
665
Q

mass extinction causes

A

bolide, climate, volcanism, sea level, ocean chemistry, combinations etc

666
Q

after mass extinction

A

empty niche spaces rapidly refilled- large increase in diversity

667
Q

Late O extinction

A

one of coldest times- lots of ice, 2 pulses of extinction (cooling, warming), 60% of maine genera, 25% of families

668
Q

cooling extinctions

A

sea level decrease, less niche space
tropic species can’t migrate to a warmer place
shallow water species lose habitat

669
Q

warming extinction

A

rising sea level, glacial melting, cold living species more greatly affected

670
Q

isotopic fractionation

A

glaciers trap lighter O (16), ocean enriched in heavy O, ocean organisms enriched in heavy O
glacial melting- light O returns, ratio ~constant

671
Q

Late D extinction

A

cause unknown- cooling? meteorite?, mostly affected marine life- 22% marine families, collapsed massive reefs

672
Q

P-T extinction

A

~245MYA, 95% marine species, 75% land species, most severe extinction, stromatolite increase, regression- loss of niches space

673
Q

P-T ocean life

A

trilobites, tabulata/rugose corals extinct
brachiopods, bryozoans, crinoids, ammonoids hit hard
snails, clams, nautiloids less affected
no reefs fro next 15MY
first stromatolites in normal environment since O

674
Q

P-T land changes

A

2 groups of therapsids survive
67% of amphibians extinctinct
30% insect orders extinct

675
Q

P-T causes

A

plate tectonics, glaciation, ocean chemistry, volcanism, bolide, combination

676
Q

P-T volcanism

A

siberian flood basalts– SO2, CO2, block sunlight, cool earth– CO2 buildup warms earth

677
Q

P-T ocean chemistry

A

worldwide long term deep-sea anoxia, high pyrite (FeS2), from Pangea formation and current shutdown

678
Q

P-T meteor impact

A

5-11km, wave of superheated vapour, dust in atmosphere, global cooling, glaciation

679
Q

10 major biological advances to note

A

origin of life, eukaryotes/origin of sex, multicellularity, skeletons, predation, biological reefs, terrestrialization, trees/forests, flight, consciousness

680
Q

Late Triassic extinction

A

breakup of pangea, low diversity, high oxidation, stromatolites, warm, condone extinction, large evaporite deposits

681
Q

K-T extinction

A 
increased fern spores- cooling?
affected marine and terrestrial
60% plankton extinct
ammonites, many marine reptiles extinct
affected large animals more- dinosaurs, large marine reptiles
682
Q

why larger animals didn’t pass K-T extinction

A

higher requirements, lower abundances, slower reproduction

683
Q

why K-T extinction

A

most likely bolide– tsunami

684
Q

K-T meteor

A

Chixulub - Yucutan peninsula of Mexico

685
Q

evidence of K-T meteor

A

crater of same age, soot (fire), glass spherules (tektites), clay with Ir/Pt enrichment, tsunamites

686
Q

Alvarez hypothesis (1990)

A

Found increased Ir level in sed. while identifying age of rock using nuclear weapon testing

687
Q

What could Ir enrichment be

A

volcanic, meteor/rain of comets, cosmic rays from supernova

688
Q

About 70% marine species became extinct

A

End O extinction

689
Q

largest mass extinction 95% of marine

A

end P extinction

690
Q

dinosaurs, marine reptiles, ammonites, belemnites extinct

A

end K extinction

691
Q

most important land extinction- floral overturn >95%

A

end T extinction

692
Q

extinction impacted trilobites, graptolites, echinoderms, brachiopods

A

end O extinction

693
Q

extinction affected reef-dwellers, cerracitic ammonites, brachiopods, bivalves

A

end T extinction

694
Q

extinction severely affected brachiopods, bivalves, foraminifera

A

end K extinction

695
Q

extinction affected cephalopods, fish, corals

A

end D extinction

696
Q

extinction marks boundary between dominance of paleozoic and modern fauna

A

P-T extinction (end P)

697
Q

least understood mass extinction

A

end D

698
Q

extinction most likely due to major meteorite impact in mexico

A

end K

699
Q

extinction may relate to formation of Pangea

A

end P

700
Q

extinction from sudden major glaciation

A

end O

701
Q

extinction from volcanic activity that was a function of the breakup of pangea

A

end T

702
Q

stratigraphy

A

study of the relations of stratified rocks, especially age relationships

703
Q

correlation

A

determining age correspondence between rocks geographically seperated

704
Q

methods of correlation

A 
biostratigraphy
lithostratigraphy
magnetostratigraphy
radiometric dating
event stratigraphy
sequence stratigraphy
705
Q

sequence stratigraphy

A

global changes in sea level

706
Q

The Principle of Fossil Correlation

A

similar assemblages of fossils are of similar age and therefore the strata containing them are of similar ages

707
Q

Principles of biostratigraphic correlation

A

based on strat ranges of fossils
rock units with same species must have been deposited during temporal range of that species
biostrat units are divided into zones
rock layers correlated to biostrat unit by presence of index fossils

708
Q

index fossil

A

abundant- found easily
morphologically distinct- distinguishable
Geographically widespread- large-scale correlations
wide range of environments- occur in many types of rocks
narrow strat range- precise correlation
preservable

709
Q

fundamental unit of biostratigraphy

A

biozone

710
Q

biozone

A

strat interval defined by occurrence of one or more fossil species/genera

711
Q

biozones are defined by

A

International Stratigraphic Guide

712
Q

local-range zone

A

teilzone

713
Q

teilzone

A

extent of the unit in a certain place

between FAD and LAD of that taxon locally

714
Q

taxon-range zone

A

between FAD and LAD of that taxon GLOBALLY

715
Q

concurrent-range zone

A

intersection of the ranges of 2 or more taxa

ex. between FAD of one and LAD of another

716
Q

interval zone

A

interval between 2 successive FADs OR

2 successive LADs

717
Q

assemblage zone

A

characterized by 3+ taxa

718
Q

Oppel zone

A

special case of assemblage zone

defined by FAD/LAD of 1 taxon but characterized by additional taxa

719
Q

Abundance zone

A

Peak/Acme/subset of teilzone

index species has high level of abundance locally

720
Q

biostratigraphy is complicated by

A

Lazarus, Elvis, and Zombie

721
Q

stratotype

A

type section- designated exposure of a named layered strat unit/boundary that serves as the standard of reference.

722
Q

type locality

A

specific geographic locality where stratotype was described/named

723
Q

type area

A

type region

geographic are that encompasses stratotype/type locality of strat unit/boundary

724
Q

specific stratal sequence used for definition/characterization of stratigraphic unit being defined

A

stratotype

725
Q

specific geographic locality where stratotype is situated

A

type locality

726
Q

isochronous

A

events occur regularly, or at equal time intervals

727
Q

diachronous

A

Varying in age from place to place

728
Q

In regards to time, biozones should be

A

ISOchronous

NOT diachronous

729
Q

why zones may not be isochronous

A 
slow dispersal rate from time of origin
barriers- ecological restrictions
local extinction
locally incomplete strat succession
locally incomplete sampling
local facies change 
preservation bias
730
Q

ICS

A

international commission of stratigraphy

731
Q

snowball/slushball earth time

A

Cryogenian period (850-635MYA)

732
Q

snowball earth glaciations

A

Kaigas, Sturtian, Marinoan

733
Q

end of snowball earth set the stage for

A

Metazoan life

734
Q

why glaciation was triggered during snowball earth

A

supercontinent breakup- increased runoff- low CO2

735
Q

snowball earth evidence

A

paleomagnetic data
cap carbonate
isotopic ratios
BIF formation - low productivity

736
Q

why it is now thought to have been slush ball earth

A

light had to have been able to penetrate to avoid reverting back to Archean biology

737
Q

evolution of metazoan life dependent on

A

oxidation state of water

nutrients- glaciation = high erosion = nutrient flux (PO4)

738
Q

main control on primary productivity

A

PO4

739
Q

led to increased nutrients during snowball earth

A

glaciation = high erosion = nutrient flux (PO4)

740
Q

altered oxidation state of marine waters during slush ball earth

A

nutrient flux– glacial retreat– algae radiation

741
Q

Metazoans

A

all animals other than protozoans and sponges
multicellular
differentiated tissues
(Tommotians/SSFs)

742
Q

distinguishes metazoans from plants/algae

A

digest food in internal chamber

lack rigid cell wall

743
Q

evidence of metazoan life

A

fecal pellets (early proterozoic, end of snowball period)
amino acids, fractionation of C, isotopes (biomarkers)
body fossils supplement evidence

744
Q

why do body fossils only supplement the evidence of metazoan life

A

because they are not abundant enough to use as evidence alone– first metazoans were mostly soft bodied

EOS (7 decks)

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