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Phase 4 > Paeds > Flashcards

Paeds Flashcards

1
Q

what are 3 characteristic signs of pneumonia on examination?

A

bronchial breath sounds
focal coarse crackles
dullness to percussion

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2
Q

what is the most common cause of pneumonia in children?

A

streptococcus pneumonia

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3
Q

what is the most common viral cause of pneumonia?

A

respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)

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4
Q

what is the typical x-ray finding in s. aureus pneumonia?

A

pneumatocoeles (round air filled cavities) and multilobe consolidation

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5
Q

what are 2 bacteria that are more likely to cause pneumonia in pre/un-vacinated children?

A

GBS
Haemophilus influenza

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6
Q

which bacterial pneumonia can cause extrapulmonary manifestations and what are they?

A

Mycoplasma pneumonia
Can cause erythema multiforme

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7
Q

what is the management of pneumonia?

A

1st - amoxicillin

+/- macrolide (erythro, clarithro, azithro) for atypicals or allergy

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8
Q

what is the name of the condition where people cannot convert IgM to IgG so cannot form long term immunity?

A

immunoglobulin class-switch recombination deficiency

VACCINES DONT WORK!

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9
Q

what age group is typically affected by croup?

A

6 months - 2years

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10
Q

what is the pathophysiology of croup?

A

upper resp tract Ix causing oedema of the larynx

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11
Q

what is the most common pathogenic cause of croup?

A

parainfluenza virus

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12
Q

what are 2 key features of croup caused by parainfluenza virus?

A

improves in <48 hours
responds well to dexamethasone

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13
Q

what are 3 other common pathogenic causes of croup

A

influenza
adenovirus
RSV

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14
Q

what is a possible cause of croup especially in pre/unvaxinated children?

A

diphtheria - leads to epiglottitis!!! high mortality!

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15
Q

what are 5 symptoms of croup?

A

increased work of breathing
barking cough in clusters
hoarse voice
stridor
low grade fever

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16
Q

what is the treatment for croup?

A

supportive

oral dexamethasone - single dose 150 mcg/Kg (can repeat at 12 hours)

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17
Q

what is the stepwise management of severe croup?

A

oral dexamethasone
O2
Neb budesonide
Neb adrenaline
Intubation and ventilation

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18
Q

what can be seen on x-ray in croup?

A

Steeple sign - tracheal narrowing

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19
Q

what age is virally induced wheeze typical in?

A

<3 years

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20
Q

what is the pathophysiology of viral induced wheeze?

A

viral infection causes inflammation and oedema which reduces space for air flow in a greater proportion due to small size of child’s airways- Poiseuilles law

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21
Q

what is the management of viral induced wheeze?

A

same as acute asthma

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22
Q

what kind of wheeze is heard in asthma and viral wheeze?

A

polyphonic expiratory wheeze throughout

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23
Q

what is moderate asthma?

A

peak flow >50% predicted
normal speech
otherwise well

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24
Q

what is severe asthma? (6)

A

peak flow 33-50% predicted
sats <92% (different to adults)
unable to complete sentences/feed
Use of accessory muscles

RR >40 1-5years, >30 5+ years
HR >140 1-5 years, >125 5+ years

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25
Q

what is life threatening asthma?

A

peak flow <33% predicted
sats <92%
exhaustion and poor resp effort
hypotension
silent chest
cyanosis
altered consciousness/confusion

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26
Q

what is a physical finding on the chest wall in severe chronic asthma?

A

harrison sulus - indentation in chest wall along 6th rib can be bilateral or unilateral

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27
Q

what is the acute management of asthma/viral wheeze?

A

Escalating Bronchodilators - Salbutamol, ipratropium bromide, magnesium sulphate, aminophylline

PLUS - Steroids - prednisone (oral) or Hydrocortisone IV

ABx - if suspected

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28
Q

what is the stepwise progression of bronchodilators in acute asthma?

A

IHR/Neb salbutamol (10 puffs every 2 hours or repeat nebs every 20-30 mins)
IHR/Neb ipratropium bromide
IV magnesium sulphate
IV aminophylline

Back to back nebs = 3 salbutamol then 1 ipratropium

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29
Q

what on spirometry suggests an obstructive picture?

A

reversibility
FEV1 <80%, FEV1:FVC <0.7

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30
Q

what are 4 investigations for asthma?

A

spirometry
direct bronchial challenge
fractional exhaled nitric oxide
peak flow variability

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31
Q

what is the long term management of asthma in over 5s?

A

1 - SABA (salbutamol)
2 - SABA + ICS
3 - SABA + ICS + LTRA (leukotriene receptor antagonist - montelukast)
4 - SABA + ICS + LABA (-LTRA)
5 - SABA + MART (low dose ICS)
6 - SABA + moderate dose ICS MART
7 - SABA + high dose ICE OR Additional drug OR Refer

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32
Q

what is the stepwise management of children <5 which chronic asthma?

A

1 - SABA
2 - SABA + 8 week trial moderate dose ICS
3 - SABA + low dose ICS + LTRA
4 - Refer

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33
Q

what is considered paediatric high dose ICS?

A

> 400 micrograms budesonide or equivalent

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34
Q

what is considered paediatric low dose ICS?

A

<200 micrograms of budesonide or equivalent

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35
Q

which LABA can be used as a short acting agonist also?

A

folmeterol

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36
Q

can ICS cause restricted growth?

A

can reduced adult hight with long term use by up to 1cm . dose dependent effect

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37
Q

what is the most common cause of bronchiolitis?

A

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)

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38
Q

in what age group does bronchiolitis occur?

A

<1 year, most common <6 months can be up to 2 years

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39
Q

what are 5 risk factors for bronchiolitis?

A

Underlying respiratory disease
congenital heart defects
seasonal
immunodeficiency
prematurity

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40
Q

what are 8 typical signs of bronchiolitis?

A

coryzal symptoms - URTI
signs of resp distress
dyspnoea
tachypnoea
poor feeding
mild fever
apnoea
wheeze and crackles

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41
Q

what are 8 signs of respiratory distress?

A

raised RR
use of accessory muscles
intercostal and subcostal recession
nasal flaring
head bobbing
tracheal tugging
cyanosis
abnormal airway noise

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42
Q

what is the typical course of RSV bronchiolitis?

A

coryzal symptoms
chest symptoms 1-2 days later
worst day 3-4
symptoms usually last 7-10 days

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43
Q

what are reasons for admission in bronchiolitis?

A

<3 months, pre-existing conditions
<50-70% of normal milk intake
clinical dehydration
RR >70
O2 <92% OA
resp distress
apnoea
parent not able to manage/access medical help at home

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44
Q

what is the management of bronchiolitis?

A

ensure adequate intake - NG, IVs
saline nasal drops, nasal suctioning
O2
ventilation support

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45
Q

2 signs of poor ventilation of a cap gas?

A

rising pCO2
falling pH

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46
Q

what can be given as prevention of RSV infection?

A

Palivizumab

monthly injection as prevention of bronchiolitis caused by RSV given to high risk babies. Provides passive protection

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47
Q

what are 4 indications for RSV prophylaxis in babies?

A

Chronic lung disease - requiring O2 post 28 days
Respiratory disease
Congenital heart disease
Severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome

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48
Q

what age does laryngomalacia occur at?

A

infants peaking at 6 months - inspiratory stridor exacerbated by lying, feeding, upset => no coinciding resp distress

problem resolves as larynx matures - around 1.5 years

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49
Q

what infection typically causes epiglottitis?

A

Haemophilus influenzae B

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50
Q

what are 8 symptoms of epiglottitis?

A

sore throat/pain swallowing
stridor
drooling
tripod position
high fever
muffled voice
scared and quiet
septic and unwell

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51
Q

what investigation can be done in suspected epiglottitis?

A

lateral xray of neck - shows thumb sign or thumbprint sign

excludes foreign body aspiration

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52
Q

what is the management of epiglottitis?

A

alert senior paediatrician and anaesthetist

nebulised adrenaline - may be used prior to intubation to reduce laryngeal oedema

ABx - cefriaxone
steroids - dexamethasone

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53
Q

what is a complication of epiglottitis?

A

epiglottic abscess

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54
Q

what is chronic lung disease of prematurity (bronchopulmonary dysplasia)?

A

typically <28 weeks gestation suffer from resp distress syndrome and require O2 or intubation and ventilation at birth. Diagnosed on CXR when infant required O2 >36 weeks gestational age

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55
Q

what are 5 features of chronic lung disease of prematurity?

A

low O2 sats
increased work of breathing
poor feeding and weight gain
crackles and wheeze
increased susceptibility to infection

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56
Q

what can reduce risk of chronic lung disease of prematurity?

A

corticosteroids (betamethasone) in premature labour mothers <36 weeks
CPAP rather than intubation
Caffeine to stimulate resp effort
avoid over-oxygenating

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57
Q

what is the most common pathogen of otitis media?

A

strep pneumoniae

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58
Q

what is the typical presentation of otitis media?

A

ear pain
reduced hearing
symptoms of URTI

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59
Q

what is the first line Abx for otitis media?

A

1 - amoxicillin 5 days

erythro, clarithro

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60
Q

what is glue ear?

A

otitis media with effusions - middle ear become full of fluid due to a blockage in the eustacion tube causing loss of hearing

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61
Q

what can be seen on otoscopy in glue ear?

A

dull tympanic membrane with air bubbles or a visible fluid level

can look normal

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62
Q

what is the natural course of glue ear?

A

usually resolves within 3 months without treatment

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63
Q

how long does it usually take grommets to fall out?

A

1 year

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64
Q

what are 3 common congenital causes of deafness?

A

maternal rubella or CMV
genetic deafness
associated syndromes - downs

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65
Q

what are 2 common perinatal causes of deafness?

A

prematurity
hypoxia during or after birth

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66
Q

what are 4 common post natal causes of deafness?

A

jaundice
meningitis and encephalitis
otitis media or glue ear
chemo

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67
Q

what is the range of normal hearing on an audiogram?

A

all readings between 0-20 dB

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68
Q

what are 3 symptoms additional to tonsillitis symptoms that can indicate quinsy?

A

trismus - unable to open mouth
change in voice (hot potato voice)
swelling and erythema surrounding tonsils

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69
Q

what is the most common pathogen in quinsy?

A

strep pyogenes (A) and Haemophilus influenzae

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70
Q

what is the management of quinsy?

A

drainage and Abx (co-amox)
?dex

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71
Q

what is preorbital cellulitis?

A

infection of upper and lower eyelid which causes red how skin swelling around eyelid and eye - distinguish from orbital cellulitis with CT scan

usually no pain or reduction in eye movements, no change in vision or abnormal pupillary response

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72
Q

what is the management of preorbital cellulitis?

A

systemic Abx

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73
Q

what is squint also known as?

A

strabismus - misalignment of the eyes causing double vision

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74
Q

what are 5 causes of squint?

A

idiopathic
hydrocephalus
cerebral palsy
space occupying lesion
trauma

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75
Q

what are 2 tests for squint?

A

cover test
herschberg’s test

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76
Q

what is the management of squint?

A

occlusive patch or atropine drops in good eye

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77
Q

what are the 3 foetal circulation shunts?

A

ductus venosus
foramen ovalae
ductus arteriosus

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78
Q

what is the ductus venosus?

A

shunt connecting umbilical vein to inferior vena cava allowing foetal blood to bypass liver

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79
Q

what is the foramen ovale?

A

shunt connecting R to L atrium which allows blood to bypass R ventricle and pulmonary circulation

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80
Q

what is the ductus arteriosus?

A

shunt connecting pulmonary artery and aorta which allows blood to bypass the pulmonary circulation

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81
Q

are atrial septal defects cyanotic?

A

no - unless R sided pressure becomes so great due to pulmonary hypertension the shunt reverses - EISENMENGER SYNDROME

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82
Q

what is eisenmenger syndrome?

A

when a shunt reverses due to pulmonary HTN causing R sided pressure > L sided pressure leading to pulmonary circulation bypass and cyanosis. develops after 1-2 years with large shunts and in adulthood with small

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83
Q

what are 4 complications of atrial septal defects?

A

stroke - with DVT - clot bypasses lungs
AF or atrial flutter
Pulmonary hypertension and r sided HF
Eismenger syndrome

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84
Q

what are 3 types of atrial septal defect?

A

Ostium secondum - septum secondum fails to fully close
patent foramen ovale
ostium primum - septum primum fails to close - tends to causes Av valve defects also

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85
Q

what is the murmur in ASD?

A

mid systolic crescendo-decrescendo murmur loudest at upper left sternal border with a fixed split second heart sound

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86
Q

what are 5 typical ASD symptoms?

A

SOB
difficulty feeding
poor eight gain
LRTIs
complications - heart failure, stroke

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87
Q

what is the management of ASD?

A

Referral to paediatric cardio

Watchful waiting if small

Transvenous catheter closure or open heart surgery

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88
Q

what can be seen on examination in eisenmengers syndrome?

A

cyanosis
clubbing
dyspnoea
plethoric complection (due to polycythaemia)

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89
Q

what is the management of eisenmengers syndrome?

A

Heart lung transplant

Management of pulmonary HTN, polycythaemia and thrombosis

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90
Q

what 2 genetic conditions are associated with VSDs?

A

Downs
Turners

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91
Q

what 3 defects can cause eisenmenger’s syndrome?

A

ASD
VSD
patent duct arteriosus

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92
Q

what is the murmur is VSD?

A

pan-systolic more prominent at left lower sternal border in 3/4 intercostal space. May be systolic thrill

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93
Q

what are the 3 causes of pan-systolic murmur?

A

VSD
mitral regurg
tricuspid regurg

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94
Q

what is the management for VSD?

A

Watch and wait if small

Surgical repair - transvenous catheter closure or open heart surgery

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95
Q

what are 4 complications of VSD?

A

Eisenmenger syndrome
Heart failure
endocarditis
pulmonary hypertension

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96
Q

how long does it usually take for the ductus arteriosus to close?

A

1-3 days to stop functioning, 2-3 weeks to fully close

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97
Q

what kind of shunt is patent duct arteriosus?

A

left to right - from aorta to pulmonary vessels

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98
Q

what murmur is heard in patent duct arteriosus?

A

continuous crescendo -decrescendo machinery murmur

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99
Q

what causes an ejection systolic murmur? (3)

A

aortic stenosis
pulmonary stenosis
hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy

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100
Q

what 2 conditions that cause cyanotic heart disease?

A

transposition of the great arteries
Tetralogy of fallot

Also Eisenmengers transformation

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101
Q

what 4 conditions are coarctation of the aorta associated with?

A

turners syndrome

bicuspid aortic valve
berry aneurysm
neurofibromatosis

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102
Q

what is the presentation of coarctation of the aorta?

A

weak femoral pulses - upper limb BP higher than lower limb - radiofemoral delay
Systolic murmur below left clavicle, may radiate to scapula
tachypnoea
poor feeding
grey, floppy baby

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103
Q

what is the management of coarctation of the aorta?

A

surgery
in high risk - prostaglandin E to keep ductus arteriosus open till surgery

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104
Q

what cardiac condition causes cyanosis at birth?

A

transposition of the great arteries

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105
Q

what is transposition of the great arteries?

A

the attachments of the aorta and pumonary trunk are swapped so R ventricle pumps blood into aorta and L ventricle into pulmonary artery

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106
Q

what is the management of transposition of the great arteries?

A

prostaglandins E1 - maintain ductus arteriosus

Balloon septostomy - insert balloon catheter into foramen ovale to create largeASD

open heart surgery - arterial switch

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107
Q

what are the 4 pathologies in tetralogy of fallot?

A

Pulmonary valve stenosis
Right ventricular hypertrophy
Overriding Aorta
VSD

PROVe

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108
Q

what kind of shunt is there in tetralogy of fallot?

A

left to right - cyanotic

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109
Q

what are 4 risk factors for tetralogy of fallot?

A

rubella infection
increased age of mother
alcohol in pregnancy
diabetic mother

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110
Q

what investigations can be used for septal defects?

A

echo + doppler flow studies

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111
Q

what can be seen on chest x-ray in tetralogy of fallot?

A

boot shaped heart due to right ventricular hypertrophy

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112
Q

what are 6 manifestations of tetralogy of fallot?

A

cyanosis
clubbing
poor feeding
poor weight gain
ejection systolic murmur loudest in pulmonary area
tet spells

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113
Q

what are tet spells?

A

seen in tetralogy of fallot where shunt becomes temporarily worse causing cyanotic episode - usually during waking, exertion, crying

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114
Q

what is the management of tet spells?

A

squatting or pulling knees to chest - increases systemic vascular resistance

O2
beta blockers - relax R ventricle
IV fluids
morphine - decrease resp drive
sodium bicarb - buffer metabolic acidosis
phenylephrine infusion - increase systemic vascular resistance

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115
Q

what is the management of tetralogy of fallot?

A

Prostaglandin E1 - maintain ductus arteriosus
Beta blockers - may be used for tet spells

total surgical repair at 3-6 months

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116
Q

what is ebstein’s anomaly?

A

R tricuspid valve lower than normal causing R ventricle to be smaller causing poor flow to pulmonary vessels - usually presents after closing of ductus arteriosus

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117
Q

what 4 conditions are associated with pulmonary valve stenosis?

A

tetralogy of fallot
william syndrome
noonan syndrome and turners syndrome
congenital rubella syndrome

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118
Q

what is rheumatic fever?

A

autoimmune condition triggered by antibodies to group A beta-haemolytic strep - typically strep pyogenes causing tonsilitis. The process usually occurs 2-4 weeks after initial infection

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119
Q

what is the presentation of rheumatic fever? (7)

A

fever
joint pain - migratory of large joints
erythema marginatum rash
shortness of breath
chorea
firm painless nodules
carditis - tachy/brady, murmurs, pericardial rub, heart failure

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120
Q

what are 3 investigations for rheumatic fever?

A

throat swab and culture
Anti streptococcal antibodies (ASO) titres
ECHO, ECG, CXR

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121
Q

what criteria is used to diagnose rheumatic fever?

A

jones criteria

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122
Q

what is the jones criteria?

A

for diagnosing rheumatic fever

TWO of JONES
Joint arthritis
Organ inflammation (carditis)
Nodules
Erythema marginatum rash
Sydenham chorea

OR
One JONES and TWO FEAR
Fever
ECG changes (prolonged PR)
Arthralgia
Raised inflammatory markers

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123
Q

what is the management of rheumatic fever?

A

Abx - Benzathine benzylpenicilin or phenoxymethylpenicillin
NSAIDs or salicates (joint pain)
Aspirin and steroids - carditis
Heartfailure - Diuretics +/- ACEi
Chorea - carbamazepine

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124
Q

what are 3 complications of rheumatic fever?

A

recurrence
valvular heart disease - mitral stenosis
chronic heart failure

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125
Q

what are 2 risk factors for GORD in children?

A

prem delivery
neurological disorders

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126
Q

what are 6 signs of problematic reflux in babies?

A

chronic cough
hoarse cry
distress after feeding
reluctance to feed
pneumonia
poor weight gain

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127
Q

what advice can be given for GORD in babies?

A

small frequent meals
burping regularly
not overfeeding
keep baby upright after feeding

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128
Q

what kind of vomiting is present in GORD?

A

effortless mainly after feeding

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129
Q

what 3 treatments can be given in babies with GORD?

A

gaviscon mixed with feeds
thickened milk or anti-reflux formula
PPIs

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130
Q

what is sandifer’s syndrome?

A

brief episodes of abnormal movements associated with GORD leading to torticollis and dystonia

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131
Q

what is a key feature of pyloric stenosis?

A

projectile vomiting

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132
Q

when does pyloric stenosis present?

A

first few weeks (4-6 weeks) of life baby failing to thrive with projectile vomiting 30 mins after feeding

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133
Q

what 3 things can be found on examination of a baby with pyloric stenosis?

A

observation of stomach peristalsis
firm round ‘olive like’ mass in upper abdomen

hypochloric (low Cl-), hypokalaemia metabolic alkalosis on blood gas

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134
Q

how is pyloric stenosis dianosed?

A

Abdo USS

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135
Q

what is the management of pyloric stenosis?

A

laparoscopic pyloromyotomy - Ramstedt’s operation

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136
Q

what are 2 common viral causes of gastroenteritits?

A

rotavirus
norovirus

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137
Q

which e.coli produces shiga toxin?

A

E.coli 0157

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138
Q

what does shiga toxin cause?

A

abdo cramps, bloody diarrhoea, vomiting - can lead to haemolytic uraemic syndrome

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139
Q

what is the most common cause of bacterial gastroenteritis?

A

campylobacter jejuni

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140
Q

where does campylobacter come from?

A

raw/improperly cooked poultry
untreated water
unpasteurised milk

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141
Q

what is the treatment of campylobacter?

A

azithromycin or ciprofloxacin

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142
Q

which bacteria causes gastroenteritis after food has not been refrigerated quickly (rice)?

A

bacillus cereus - diarrhoea resolving in 24 hours

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143
Q

what is the treatment of Giardiasis?

A

metronidazole

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144
Q

what are 4 possible complications of gastroenteritis?

A

lactose intolerance
IBS
reactive arthritis
GBS

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145
Q

what is toddlers diarrhoea?

A

chronic watery diarrhoea in well <5 year olds which can often be helped by changes in diet

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146
Q

what are the 4fs of toddler’s diets?

A

fat - shouldnt have low fat diet
Fluid - not sugary drinks, not too much water
Fruit + fruit juice - gut cannot absorb fructose or sorbitol easily
Fibre - 12-18g per day

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147
Q

what is persistent diarrhoea?

A

> 2 weeks

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148
Q

what is chronic diarrhoea?

A

> 4 weeks

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149
Q

what is encopresis?

A

foecal incontinence

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150
Q

at what age does faecal incontinence become pathological?

A

4 years

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151
Q

what are 6 causes of faecal incontinence?

A

spina bifida
hirschprungs disease
cerebral palsy
overflow incontinence - stress, abuse
Constipation with overflow
Learning disability

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152
Q

what are 5 lifestyle factors that may contribute to constipation in children?

A

habitual not opening bowels
low fibre diet
poor fluid intake
sedentary lifestyle
psychosocial problems

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153
Q

what are 8 secondary causes of constipation in children?

A

hirschprungs disease
CF
Hypothyroid
Spinal cord lesions
sexual abuse
Intestinal obstruction
anal stenosis
cow milk intolerance

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154
Q

what are 8 red flag symptoms of constipation in children?

A

Failure to pass meconium
neurological signs or symptoms
Vomiting
Ribbon stool
Abnormal anus
Abnormal lower back/buttocks - spina bifida
Failure to thrive
Acute sever abdo pain/bleeding

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155
Q

what is the first line laxative in children?

A

1 - Macrogol (movicol)
1-11 months - 0.5 sachets
1-5 years - 1 sachet
6-11 years - 2 sachets

MAX 4 sachets

2 - add stimulant laxitive

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156
Q

what is meckel’s divertculum?

A

malformation of distal ileum present in 2% of population that can bleed, become inflamed, rupture or cause volvutus, intussusception or obstruction

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157
Q

what is the presentation of Meckel’s diverticulum?

A

abdo pain mimicking appendicitis
Rectal bleeding - most common cause of massive GI bleed in 1-2 year olds
Intestinal obstruction - volvulus and intussusception

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158
Q

what investigations can be used for meckel’s diverticulum?

A

Meckels scan - technetium-99m pertechnetate

Mesenteric arteriography

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159
Q

what is the management of symptomatic Meckel’s diverticulum?

A

surgical resection or diverticulectomy

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160
Q

what are the 5 key features of Crohn’s? (mneumonic)

A

NESTS

No blood or mucus (less than UC)
Entire GI tract
Skip lesions
Terminal ileum most affected + Trans mural
Smoking risk factor

weight loss, strictures, fistulae

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161
Q

what are the 7 key features of UC? (mneumonic)

A

CLOSEUP

Continuous inflammation
Limited to colon and rectum
Only superficial mucosa
Smoking protective
Excrete blood and mucus
Use aminosalicylates
Primary sclerosing cholangitis

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162
Q

what is one stool test that can be used for IBD but only in adults?

A

faecal calprotectin

Aged 16-40 years

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163
Q

what is the most common congenital abnormality of the small bowel?

A

meckel’s diverticulum

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164
Q

when do people usually present with meckel’s diverticulum?

A

<2 years

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165
Q

what is faltering growth?

A

fall in weight across:
1+ centiles if birth weight below 9th
2+ centiles if birth weight between 9th-91st
3+ centiles if birth weight 91+ centiles

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166
Q

what are 5 causes of failure to thrive?

A

inadequate nutritional intake
difficulty feeding
malabsorption
increased energy requirements
inability to process nutrition

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167
Q

what are 5 causes of inadequate nutritional intake in children failing to thrive?

A

maternal malabsorption if breastfeeding
IDA
family or parental problems
neglect
availability of food

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168
Q

what are 4 causes of difficulty feeding?

A

poor suck (cerebral palsy)
cleft lip/palate
genetic conditions w/ abnormal face structure
pyloric stenosis

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169
Q

what are 5 causes of malabsorption in children failing to thrive?

A

CF
coeliac disease
cows milk intolerance
chronic diarrhoea
IBD

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170
Q

what are 4 causes of increased energy requirements in children failing to thrive?

A

Hyperthroidism
chronic disease - CF, CHD
malignancy
chronic infections - HIV, immunodeficiency

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171
Q

what are 2 causes of inability to process nutrients in children failing to thrive?

A

inborn errors of metabolism
T2DM

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172
Q

how do you calculate mid-parental height?

A

average of parents height

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173
Q

what is anthropometry?

A

in nutritional assessment - includes weight, height mid-upper arm circumference and skinfold thickness

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174
Q

what is Hirschprungs disease?

A

congenital condition where nerve cells of the myenteric (auerbach’s) plexus are absent causing a lack of peristalsis of the large bowel

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175
Q

what innervation is responsible for motor supply to the bowel?

A

Auerbach plexus

located between circular and longitudinal muscle layers of gut - responsible for peristalsis - in muscularis propria

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176
Q

what plexus is responsible for innervation of gastric absorption, secretion and blood flow as well as ion and water transport and sensory stimuli?

A

Meissner’s plexus

In submucosa

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177
Q

what is the key pathopysiology of hirschprungs disease?

A

absence of parasympathetic ganglion cells in the colon

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178
Q

what are 4 syndrome that can be associated with hirschprung’s?

A

downs
neurofibromatosis
waardenburg syndrome
multiple endocrine neoplasia type II

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179
Q

what are 5 presentations of hirschprungs disease?

A

delay in passing meconium
chronic constipation since birth
abdo pain and distention
vomiting
poor weight gain and failure to thrive

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180
Q

what is hirschsprung associated enterocolitis?

A

inflammation and obstruction of the intestines in 20% of neonates with hirschprungs presenting usually between 2-4 weeks with fever, abdo distension, diarrhoea (w/ blood usually) and features of sepsis

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181
Q

what is the management of hirschsprungs associated enterocolitis?

A

Abx
fluid resuscitation
decompression of obstruction

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182
Q

how is hirschsprungs disease diagnosed?

A

rectal biopsy + histology for absence of ganglionic cells

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183
Q

what is the management of hirschsprungs disease?

A

surgical resection of aganglionic bowel - usually anorectal pull-through

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184
Q

what age group does intussusception occur most commonly in?

A

6 months - 2 years

more common in boys

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185
Q

what is intussusception?

A

when the bowel invaginates into itself usually causing bowel obstruction

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186
Q

what 5 conditions are risk factors for intussusception?

A

concurrant viral illness
henoch-schonlein purpura
CF
intestinal polyps
meckel diverticulum

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187
Q

what are 6 presentations of intussusception?

A

sever colicky abdo pain
pale, lethargic unwell child
Inconsolable crying
drawing knees up and turning pale
redcurrant jelly stool
sausage shaped RUQ mass
vomiting
intestinal obstruction

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188
Q

what is the first line investigation for intussusception?

A

US abdo

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189
Q

what can be seen on abdo US in intussusception?

A

Target like mass

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190
Q

what is the treatment for intussusception?

A

1 - therapeutic enema (air insufflation) - contrast, water or air

2- surgery

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191
Q

what are 4 complications of intussusception?

A

obstruction
gangrenous bowel
perforation
death

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192
Q

what are 8 causes of bowel obstruction in children?

A

meconium ileus
hirschprungs
oesophageal atresia
duodenal atresia
intussusception
imperforate anus
malrotation of the intestines + volvulus
strangulated hernia

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193
Q

what can be seen on abdo xray in obstruction?

A

proximal dilated bowel loops
distal collapsed bowel loops
absence of air in rectum

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194
Q

what classes as bowel loop dilation in adults?

A

rule of 3s

small bowl >3cm
Large bowel >6cm
Caecum >9 cm

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195
Q

when does biliary atresia present?

A

shortly after birth

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196
Q

what is the presentation of biliary atresia?

A

jaundice a few weeks after birth - CONJUGATED bilirubin
Pale stools and dark urine
irritability
hepatomegaly
Failure to thrive

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197
Q

what kind of bilirubin is high in biliary atresia?

A

conjugated bilirubin

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198
Q

what is the 1st line investigation for billiary atresia?

A

conjugated and unconjugated bilirubin

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199
Q

what is classed as persistent jaundice in babies?

A

> 14 days term babies
21 days premies

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200
Q

what is the management of billiary atresia?

A

surgery - kasai portoenterostomy

Ursoseoxycholic acid - given post op to promote bile flow

often require full liver transplant

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201
Q

what surgery is used to correct biliary atresia?

A

Kasai portoenterostomy

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202
Q
A
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203
Q

what are 3 complications of biliary atresia?

A

Cholangitis
cirrhosis and liver failure
nutritional deficiencies - unable to absorb fat soluble vitamins

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204
Q

what is henoch-schonlein purpura?

A

autoimmune small vessel vasculitis usually triggered by URTI which causes inflammation of capilaries leading to purpuric rash typically on lower legs, joint pain and GI symptoms. Can also cause kidney damage due to IgA deposits

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205
Q

what are the 4 classic features of Henoch-schonlein purpura?

A

purpuric rash on legs
joint pain
GI symptoms
Renal involvement - IgA nephritis

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206
Q

what is the management of henoch-schonlein purpura?

A

Supportive - analgesia (NSAIDs unless renal injury), rest, hydration

Steroids may be used to shorted duration

moniter urine dip and BP

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207
Q

what are 4 complications of henoch-scholein purpura?

A

GI bleed or intussuscpetion
AKI or CKD
Scrotal swelling or orchitis
Recurrence

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208
Q

what is an abdominal migraine?

A

severe central abdo pain >1 hour with normal examination
may also have nausea, vom, anorexia, pallor, headache, photophobia, aura

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209
Q

what is the acute management of abdo migraine?

A

paracetamol
ibuprofen
sumatriptan

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210
Q

what is the prophylaxis of abdo migraine?

A

1 - pizotifen - serotonin agonist

propanolol
cyproheptadine - antihistamine
flunarazine - Ca channel blocker

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211
Q

what is gastroschisis?

A

a birth defect causing abdominal organs to be located outside abdomen due to defect in abdominal wall

Vaginal delivery may be attempted and neonates are taken to theatre within 4 hours of birth

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212
Q

what are 2 examination findings in diaphragmatic hernia?

A

apex beat displaced to r side of chest
poor air entry in L chest

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213
Q

what is the management of diaphragmatic hernia?

A

NG tube suction to prevent intrathoracic bowel distention and surgical repair - high mortality due to underdeveloped lungs in utero

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214
Q

who are umbilical hernias more common in?

A

children of african descent

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215
Q

what are 2 classes of symptoms of cow milk protein allergy?

A

GI symptoms - bloating, wind, abdo pain, diarrhoea , vomiting

Allergic symptoms - hives, angio-oedema, cough/wheeze, sneezing, watery eyes, eczema, anaphylaxis

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216
Q

what formula can be used in cow milk protein allergy?

A

1 - hydrolysed formulas

2 - elemental amino acid formulas

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217
Q

what is one thing that can be prescribed to the breast feeding mother of cows milk protein allergy babies?

A

Calcium supplements - as they will not be eating dairy and therefore need another source of calcium

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218
Q

what is the difference between cow milk intolerance and allergy?

A

intolerance has GI symptoms but no allergic symptoms unlike allergy

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219
Q

by what age do children usually grow out of cow’s milk protein allergy?

A

3 years

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220
Q

what immunoglobulin causes rapid cows milk protein allergy?

A

IgE

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221
Q

what are choledochal cysts?

A

congenital cyst dilations of the billary tree more commonly affecting females which have a small risk of malignancy

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222
Q

what is the classic triad of choledochal cysts?

A

abdo pain
jaundice
abdo mass

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223
Q

what is neonatal hepatitis syndrome?

A

idiopathic prolonged neonatal jaundice and hepatic inflammation which may cause low birth weight and faltering growth

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224
Q

what is the usual presentation of colic?

A

sudden inconsolable crying/screaming accompanied by drawing knees to chest and passing excessive gas. Typically occurs <3 months, often worse in the evening

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225
Q

when should colic be suspected?

A

Rule of 3s

more than 3 hours a day
3 days a week
for 3 weeks

otherwise healthy baby

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226
Q

what 2 findings indicate pyelonephritis over uti?

A

temp >38 degrees
loin pain/tenderness

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227
Q

what is the management for < 3 months with fever?

A

immediate IV Abx - cefotaxime+ amoxicillin

+ full septic screen

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228
Q

what a full septic screen in <3 months?

A

bloods - FBC, CRP, cultures, lactate
urine dip
CXR
LP
? cap gas

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229
Q

when should children with UTIs get an USS within 6 weeks?

A

if first UTI <6 months
recurrent UTIs
atypical UTIs

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230
Q

what investigation can be done for defects in renal tissue and scars after UTI?

A

DMSA scan (dimercaptosuccinic acid) - injection of radioactive material using gamma camera done 4-6 months after infection

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231
Q

what investigation can be done to visualise urinary anatomy, vesicouteric reflux and urethral obstruction in children <6 months?

A

micturating cystourethrogram (MCUG)
- catheterise child and inject contrast then take x rays

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232
Q

what is vesico-uteric reflux?

A

where there is a developmental abnormality of the vesicouteric junction where the ureters are displaced laterally and enter the bladder directly allowing urine to reflux back up ureters and to the kidney causing dilatation and increased risk of infection and scaring

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233
Q

what is the management of pyelonephritis in children?

A

Consider referral to paeds at any age and definitely <3 months

1 - Cefalexin PO
3mon to 11 years - 12.5 mg/kg BD 7-10 days

12-15 years - 500mg BD/TDS 7-10 days
OR
Co-Amox PO
3mon-5 years - 0.25ml/kg of 125/31 suspension TDS 7-10 days

IVs - Co-amox, cefuroxime, ceftriaxone, gent, amikacin

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234
Q

what is the management of UTI in children <3 months?

A

Imediate paeds referral

IV antibiotics (ceftriaxone)
Full septic screen - blood cultures, bloods, lactate, ?LP

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235
Q

what is the management of UTI in children >3 months?

A

1 - Trimethoprin PO
3mon to 11 years - 4mg/Kg BD for 3 days
12-15 years - 200mg BD 3 days

Nitrofurantoin PO
3 mon-11 years - 750 microg/Kg QDS for 3 days
12-15 years - 50mg QDS 3 days

2 - Nitrofurantoin
Cefalexin PO
3mon-11 years - 12.5mg/kg BD for 3 days
12-15 years - 500mg BD 3 days

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236
Q

what is enuresis?

A

involuntary urination

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237
Q

by what age do children usually get control of day time bladder function?

A

2 years

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238
Q

by what age do children usually stop bed wetting?

A

3-4 years

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239
Q

what are 5 possible causes of primary nocurnal enuresis?

A

overactive bladder - frequent small volume urination prevents development of bladder capacity
fluid intake prior to bed
failure to wake
psychological distress
secondary causes - chronic constipation, UTI, learning disability, cerebral palsy

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240
Q

what is primary nocturnal enuresis?

A

wetting the bed having never stopped

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241
Q

at what age does nocturnal enuresis become pathogenic?

A

5 years

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242
Q

what are 5 causes of primary nocturnal enuresis?

A

overactive bladder
fluid intake
failure to wake
psychological distress
secondary causes

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243
Q

what is secodnary nocturnal enuresis?

A

wetting the bed having previously stopped for >6 months

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244
Q

what are 5 causes of secondary nocturnal enuresis?

A

UTI
constipation
T1DM
psychosocial problems
abuse

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245
Q

what is diurnal enuresis?

A

day time wetting self

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246
Q

what are 3 management options for nocturnal enuresis?

A

1 - Eneurisis alarm

2 - desmopressin (taken at bedtime)

3- oxybutinin - anticholinergic
imipramine - tricyclic antidepressant

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247
Q

what age range is nephrotic syndrome most common in?

A

2-5 years

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248
Q

what is the classical triad of nephrotic syndrome?

A

low serum albumin
high urine protein (3+ or >3 grams)
oedema

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249
Q

what are 6 signs of nephrotic syndrome?

A

low serum albumin
high urine protein
oedema
deranged lipid profile
high BP
hyper-coagulability

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250
Q

what is the most common cause of nephrotic syndrome in children?

A

minimal change disease

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251
Q

what are 4 secondary causes of nephrotic syndromes?

A

intrinsic kidney disease - focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, mebranoproliferative glomerulonephitis

Henoch schonlein purpura
diabetes
infection - HIV, hepatitis, malaria

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252
Q

what can be seen on urinalysis in minimal change?

A

small molecular weight proteins and hyaline casts

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253
Q

what is the first line management of minimal change disease?

A

high dose corticosteroids - prednisolone

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254
Q

what is the management of steroid resistant nephrotic syndrome?

A

ACEi
immunosupressants - cyclosporine, tacrolimus, rituximab

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255
Q

what is the general management of nephrotic syndromes (5)?

A

high dose steroids - pred
low salt diet
diuretics
albumin infusion
antibiotic prophylaxis

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256
Q

what are 5 complications of nephrotic syndromes?

A

hypovolaemia and low BP
thrombosis
infection - kidneys leak immunoglobulins
acute or chronic renal failure
relapse

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257
Q

what is the pathophysiology of nephrotic syndromes?

A

the basement membrane of the glomerulus becomes highly permeable to proteins allowing them to leak from the blood into the urine

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258
Q

what is the pathophysiology of nephritic syndromes?

A

inflammation of the nephrons

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259
Q

what are 3 consequences of nephritic syndromes?

A

reduction in kidney function
haematuria
proteinuria (less than nephrotic)

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260
Q

what are the two most common causes of nephritis in children?

A

post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
IgA nephropathy - HSP

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261
Q

what is the pathophysiology of post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis?

A

1-3 weeks after b-haemolytic strep (strep pyogenes) infection e.g tonsilitis immune complexes get stuck in the glomeruli and cause inflammation leading to AKI

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262
Q

what 2 investigations can be done to test for strep in post-strep glomerulonephritis?

A

positive throat swab
anti-streptolysin antibody titres

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263
Q

what is the management of nephritis?

A

supportive mainly

manage complications - IgA may need immunosupression

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264
Q

what is IgA nephropathy a complication of?

A

Henoch-schonlein purpura (IgA vasculitis)

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265
Q

what is the pathophysiology of IgA nephropathy?

A

IgA deposits in nephrons cause inflammation

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266
Q

what 2 things can be seen on biopsy in IgA nephropathy?

A

IgA deposits
Glomerular mesangial proliferation

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267
Q

what age group is usually affected with IgA nephropathy?

A

teens and young adults

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268
Q

what usually triggers haemolytic uraemic syndrome?

A

shinga toxin (from e.coli 0157 or shingella)

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269
Q

what is the classical triad of haemolytic uraemic syndrome?

A

haemolytic anaemia
AKI
thrombocytopenia

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270
Q

what increases the risk of haemolytic uraemic syndrome?

A

use of antibiotics and loperamide to treat gastroenteritis caused by e.coli0157 or shingella

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271
Q

how long after onset of gastroenteritis do symptoms of haemolytic uraemic syndrome usually start?

A

5 days

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272
Q

what are 8 presentations of haemolytic uraemic syndrome?

A

reduced urine output
haematuria or dark brown urine
abdo pain and bloody diarrhoea (due to gastroenteritis)
lethargy and irritablility
confusion
oedema
HTN
bruising
jaundice - due to haemolysis

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273
Q

what is the management of haemolytic uraemic syndrome?

A

supportive - renal dialysis, antihypertensives, maintain fluid balance, blood transfusion

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274
Q

what is hypospadias?

A

condition where uretheral meatus is displaced to underside of penis

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275
Q

what is epispadias?

A

condition where the urethral meatus is displaced to the top side of the penis

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276
Q

what is chordee?

A

where head of penis is bent downwards

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277
Q

what are 3 complications of hypospadias?

A

difficulty directing urination
cosmetic and psychological concerns
sexual dysfunction

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278
Q

what is phemosis?

A

pathological non-retration of foreskin

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279
Q

what condition is the most common cause of phimosis?

A

balantitis xerotica obliterans

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280
Q

what reduction in renal function classes as AKI?

A

<0.5 ml/Kg/hour over 6 hours

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281
Q

what category of cause is most common in childhood AKI?

A

pre-renal

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282
Q

what are the 2 most common causes of intra-renal failure in children?

A

haemolytic uraemic syndrome
acute tubular necrosis

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283
Q

what is stage 1 ckd?

A

eGFR >90 ml/min per 1.73 m2

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284
Q

what is stage 2 ckd?

A

eGFR 60-89

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285
Q

what is stage 3 ckd?

A

eGFR 30-59

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286
Q

what is stage 4 eGFR?

A

eGFR 15-29

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287
Q

what is stage 5 ckd?

A

eGGR <15 ml/min per 1.73m2

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288
Q

what 8 presenting features of severe CKD?

A

anorexia and lethargy
polydipsia and polyuria
faltering growth
bony deformities from renal rickets
hypertension
acute on chronic renal failure
proteinuria
normochomic normocytic anaemia

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289
Q

what type of hypersensitivity reaction in anaphylaxis?

A

type 1

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290
Q

what immunoglobulin causes anaphylaxis?

A

IgE

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291
Q

what is the pathophysiology of anaphylaxis?

A

igE stimulates mast cells to rapidly release histamine in mast cell degranulation

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292
Q

what is the key feature of anaphylaxis vs non-anaphylactic allergy?

A

anaphylaxis causes compromise of airway, breathing or circulation

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293
Q

what are the 4 allergic symptoms?

A

urticaria
itching
angio-oedema
abdominal pain

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294
Q

what is the management of anaphylaxis?

A

ABCDE

IM adrenaline
Antihistamines - chlorphenamine or certirizine
steroids - hydrocortisone

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295
Q

what can be a complication of anaphylaxis?

A

biphasic reaction - second anaphylactic reaction after treatment

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296
Q

what investigation can be done for anaphylaxis?

A

serum mast cell tryptase - within 6 hours of event

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297
Q

what are 5 reasons someone with a non-anaphylactic allergic reaction may get an epipen?

A

asthma requiring ICS
poor access to medical tx
adolescents - higher risk
nut/sting allergies
significant co-morbidities

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298
Q

what is the skin sensitisation theory of allergy?

A

there is a break in the infants skin that allows allergens from the environment to react with the immune system but there is no contact with the allergen through the GI tract

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299
Q

what is the classification system for hypersensitivity reactions?

A

cooms and gell

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300
Q

what is a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction?

A

IgE antibodies trigger mast cells and basophils to degranulate causing an immediate reaction - food allergy reactions

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301
Q

what is a type 2 hypersensitivity reaction?

A

IgG and IgM mediated activating the complement system leading to direct damage of local cells - haemolytic disease of newborn, transfusion reactions

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302
Q

what is a type 3 hypersensitivity reaction?

A

immune complexes accumulate and cause damage to local tissues - autoimmune conditions

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303
Q

what is a type 4 hypersensitivity reaction?

A

cell mediated caused by T lymphocytes which are inappropriately activated causing inflammation and damage to local tissues - organ transplant rejection, contact dermatitis

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304
Q

what are 3 investigations for allergies?

A

skin prick test
RAST testing - measure of allergen specific IgE
food challenge - gold standard

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305
Q

what hypersensitivity reaction is allergic rhinits?

A

type 1 IgE

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306
Q

what is the presentation of allergic rhinitis?

A

runny, bocked, itchy nose
sneezing
itchy, red, swollen eyes

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307
Q

what are 3 non-sedating antihistamines?

A

certirizine
loratadine
fexofenadine

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308
Q

what are 2 sedating anti-histamines?

A

chlorpenamine
promethazine

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309
Q

what can be taken as prophylactic for allergic rhinits?

A

nasal corticosteroids - fluticasone, mometasone

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310
Q

what are 3 live vaccinations?

A

BCG
MMR
nasal flu vaccine

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311
Q

what can cafe-au-lait spots be a sign of?

A

neurofibromatosis type 1 (if have 6+)

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312
Q

what 3 things can port wine marks rarely be a sign of?

A

sturge-weber syndrome
klippel trenaunay syndrome
macrocephaly-capillary malformation

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313
Q

what are mongolial blue spots?

A

blue/black macular discolouration at base of spine and on buttocks or thighs - fade over first few years of life

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314
Q

what is the name of the red skin mark that can grow up until a child’s first birthday?

A

haemangioma - strawberry naevus

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315
Q

what is osteogenesis imperfecta?

A

genetic condition also known as brittle bone disease caused by mutation in formation of collagen

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316
Q

what is the inheritance of osteogenesis imperfecta?

A

Autosomal dominant

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317
Q

what are 8 features associated with osteogenesis imperfecta?

A

hypermobility
blue/grey sclera
triangular face
short stature
deafness from early adulthood
dental problems
bone deformities
joint and bone pain

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318
Q

what are blood results usually like in osteogenesis imperfecta?

A

normal - calcium, phosphate, parathyroid, ALP

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319
Q

what is the pathophysiology of rickets?

A

deficiency in vitamin D/calcium which results in defective bone mineralisation

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320
Q

what is the name of the genetic version of rickets?

A

hereditary hypophasphataemic rickets

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321
Q

what is the inheritance of hereditary hypophosphataemic rickets?

A

X-linked dominant

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322
Q

what are 8 presentations of rickets?

A

lethargy
bone pain
swollen wrists
bone deformuty
poor growth
dental problems
muscle weakness
pathological or abnormal fractures

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323
Q

what are 5 bone deformities in rickets?

A

bowing of legs
knock knees
rachitic rosary - expanded ribs causing lumps on chest
craniotabes - soft skull, delayed closing
delayed teeth

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324
Q

what investigation is done for vitamin d deficiency?

A

serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D - <25nmol/L = deficiency

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325
Q

what are 5 investigations that can be done for rickets?

A

serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D
serum calcium
serum phosphate
serum alkaline phosphatase
parathyroid hormone

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326
Q

what is the most common cause of hip pain in children 3-10 years?

A

transient synovitis

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327
Q

what is transient synovitis often associated with?

A

preceeding viral upper resp tract infection

low grade fever

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328
Q

what criteria can be used to distinguish between transient synovitis and septic arthritis in children?

A

Kocher criteria

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329
Q

what is the Kocher criteria?

A

For septic arthritis in children

Fever >38.5
Non-weight bearing
Raised ESR
Raised WCC

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330
Q

what age is septic arthritis most common in?

A

<4 years

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331
Q

what is perthes disease?

A

disruption of blood flow to femoral head causing avascular necrosis of the epiphysis of the femur

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332
Q

what age group does perthes disease occur most commonly in?

A

Occurs 4-12 years age group most commonly 5-8 years
More prevalent in boys

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333
Q

what is the presentation of perthe’s disease?

A

slow onset of

Pain inn hip/groin
Limp
Restricted hip movements
Referred pain to knee

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334
Q

what investigation is used to confirm absence of perthe’s disease in normal x-ray?

A

Technertium bone scan
OR
MRI

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335
Q

what staging can be used for perthe’s disease?

A

Catterall staging

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336
Q

what are 2 complications of perthe’s disease?

A

Osteoarthritis
premature fusion of growth plates

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337
Q

what is the management of perthe’s disease?

A

Bed rest
traction
crutches
analgesia
physio

regular x-rays
Surgery may be required if present at older age or greater stage of disease

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338
Q

what is slipped upper femoral eiphysis? (SUFE)

A

when head of femur displaces along growth plate

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339
Q

who is SUFE more common in?

A

boys aged 8-15
obese children
May be history of mild trauma

340
Q

how do people with SUFE prefer to hold their hip?

A

in external rotation and have limited movement of hip

341
Q

what is the 1st line investigation for SUFE?

A

X-ray - AP and Lateral (frag leg) views

342
Q

what is the management of SUFE?

A

Avoid weight bearing

surgery to correct femoral head position - internal fixation

343
Q

what are 4 complications of SUFE?

A

Osteoarthritis
Avascular necrosis of the femoral head
Chondrolysis
Leg length discrepancy

344
Q

what is developmental dysplasia of the hip?

A

structural abnormality n developmental of foetal bones leading to instability of the hips and tendency for subluxation or dislocation

345
Q

what are 7 risk factors for developmental dysplasia of the hip?

A

FHx 1st degree relative
breech presentation > 36 weeks or at birth
Multiple pregnancy
Female
oligohydramnios
prematurity
macrosomnia (>5kg)

346
Q

what are 6 findings that may suggest developmental dysplasia of the hip on neonatal examination?

A

different leg lengths
restricted hip abduction on one side
significant bilateral restriction in hip abduction
difference in knee level with flexed hips
clunking of hips on special tests
asymmetrical skin folds

347
Q

what are two special test for developmental dysplasia of the hio?

A

ortolani test
barlow test

348
Q

what infants require an US for developmental dysplasia of the hip? 3

A

1st degree relative Hx of hip problem in early life
Breech at or after 36 weeks
Multiple pregnancy

349
Q

what is the ortolani test?

A

for developmental dysplasia of the hip

hips and knees flexed, hips gently abducted and pushed from the back to see if they will dislocate anteriorly

350
Q

what is barlow test?

A

for developmental dysplasia of the hip

hips and knees flexed and gentle pressure put on knees through femur to see if hips will dislocate posteriorly

351
Q

what investigation can be done for developmetal dysplasia of the hips?

A

US hip

352
Q

what is the 1st line investigation for developmental dysplasia of the hip if presenting >4.5 months old?

A

X-ray hip

353
Q

what is the management for developmental dysplasia of the hips?

A

Pavlik harness (<6 months) for 6-8 weeks

surgery if harness fails or >6 months old and then hip spica cast

354
Q

what are 5 complications of developmental dysplasia of the hip?

A

Pain
Hip instability
early onset hip osteoarthritis
femoral nerve palsy
avascular necrosis of the femoral head

355
Q

what are the 5 subtypes of juvenile idiopathic arthritis?

A

systemic JIA
polyarticular JIA
Oligoarticular JIa
enthesitis related arthritis
juvenile psoriatic arthritis

356
Q

what is systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis also known as?

A

Still’s disease

357
Q

what are 8 manifestations of systemic JIA?

A

subtle salmon pink rash
high swinging fevers
enlarged lymph nodes
weight loss
joint inflammation and pain
splenomegally
muscle pain
pleuritis and pericarditis

> 6 weeks

358
Q

what is seen on blood tests in systemic JIA?

A

negative - antinuclear antibodies, RF

Raised CRP, ESR, platelets, ferritin

359
Q

what is are 2 key complication of systemic JIA?

A

macrophage activation syndrome - severe inflammatory responce causing DIC, anaemia, thrombocytopenia, bleeding, non-blanching rash

chronic anterior uveitis

360
Q

what are 4 key non-infective causes of fever in children > 5 days?

A

kawasaki disease
still disease (systemic JIA)
rheumatic fever
leukaemia

361
Q

what is polyarticular JIA?

A

idiopathic inflammatory arthritis in 5+ joints - equivalent of RhA in adults though most children are seronegative

362
Q

what is oligoarticular JIA?

A

monoarthritis affecting <4 joints, classically associated with anterior uveitis. most common in gils under 6

363
Q

what is enthesitis related arthritis?

A

paediatric seronegative spondyloarthropathies. inflammatory arthritis + enthesitis (inflammation of tendon insertion points)

usually HLA-B27 +ve

364
Q

what are 5 signs of juvenile psoriatic arthritis?

A

places of psoriasis
nail piitting
onycholysis (seperation of nail bed)
dactylitis
enthesitis

365
Q

what is the management of juvenile idiopathic arthritis?

A

NSAIDs
steroids
DMARDs - methotrexate
Biologics - TNF inhibitors, infliximab etc

366
Q

what age group does kawasaki’s usually affect?

A

<5 years

367
Q

what is a key complication of kawasaki disease?

A

coronary artery aneurysm

368
Q

what is the pathophysiology of kawasaki disease?

A

systemic medium sized vessel vasculitis?

369
Q

what are 7 key features of kawasaki?

A

high (>39) fever >5 days

widespread erythematous maculopapular rash on trunk

Oedema of hands and feed preceding desquamation
Strawberry tongue and cracked lips
cervical lymphadenopathy
bilateral conjunctivitis
arthritis

370
Q

what are 5 investigations for kawasaki?

A

FBC - anaemia, leukocytosis, thrombocytosis
LFTS - hypoalbuminaemia, elevated enzymes
raised inflammatory markers (particularly esr)
Urinaralysis - wt cells without infection
ECHO

371
Q

what happens in the acute phase of kawasakis?

A

most unwell for 1-2 weeks
Fever, rash, lymphadenopathy

372
Q

what happens in the subacute phase of kawasakis?

A

weeks 2-4
acute symptoms settle
desquamation, strawberry tongue and arthralgia
occur - there is risk of coronary artery aneurysms forming

373
Q

what happens in the covalescent stage of kawasakis?

A

week 2-4
remaining symptoms settle

374
Q

what is the management of kawasaki disease?

A

high dose aspirin - reduce risk of throbosis

IV Ig to reduce risk of coronary artery aneurysm

375
Q

what is Reye’s syndrome

A

a preceeding viral infection usually treated with ASPIRIN followed by acute encephalopathy and hepatic dysfunction in children and young people

376
Q

what are 4 complications of Kawasaki disease?

A

coronary artery aneurysm
Myocarditis
pericarditis
Reye’s syndrome

377
Q

what follow up is needed with kawasakis?

A

ECG and ECHO

378
Q

what cells produce surfactant?

A

type II pneumocytes

379
Q

when does surfactant start to be produced?

A

between 24-34 weeks gestation

380
Q

what is required to keep the ductus arteriosus open?

A

prostaglandins

381
Q

what can extended hypoxia lead to during birth?

A

hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy => cerebral palsy

382
Q

what are 3 issues of neonatal resuscitation?

A

large SA to weight ratio - cold
born wet and loose heat rapidly
meconium aspiration

383
Q

what are 5 principles of neonatal resuscitation?

A

warm baby
calculate APGAR score
stimulate breathing
inflation breaths
chest compressions

384
Q

when should you calculate the APGAR score?

A

1, 5 and 10 minutes during resus

385
Q

how do you stimulate breathing in neonatal resussitation?

A

dry vigorously with towel
place baby head in neutral
check for airway obstruction and consider aspiration if gasping or unable to breathe

386
Q

how should inflation breaths be given in neonates?

A

2 cycles of 5 inflation breaths
if no response 30s of ventilation breaths can be used
then chest compressions coordinated with ventilation breaths

387
Q

what should be used for inflation breaths in preterm vs term babies?

A

preterm - air and O2
term - just air

388
Q

when should you start chest compressions in a neonate?

A

if HR <60 bpm despite resus and inflation breaths

389
Q

what is the APGAR score?

A

for neonatal resus

Appearance (skin colour)
Pulse
Grimmace (to stimulation)
Activity (tone)
respiration

390
Q

what is the scoring for appearance in APGAR?

A

blue/pale centrally = 0
blue extremities = 1
pink = 2

391
Q

what is the scoring for pulse in APGAR?

A

Absent = 0
<100 = 1
>100 = 2

392
Q

what is the scoring for grimmace in APGAR?

A

no response = 0
little response = 1
good response = 2

393
Q

what is the scoring for activity in APGAR?

A

floppy = 0
flexed arms and legs =1
active = 2

394
Q

what is the scoring for respiration in APGAR?

A

absent =0
slow/irregular = 1
strong/crying = 2

395
Q

how long should delayed cord clamping be?

A

1 minute

396
Q

under what gestation can be affected by respiratory distress syndrome?

A

< 32 weeks

397
Q

what xray changes are seen in respiratory distress syndrome?

A

ground glass appearance

398
Q

what are 4 types of ventilatory support that may be needed by premature neonates?

A

intubation and ventilation
endotracheal surfactant
CPAP
supplementary oxygen

399
Q

what are 6 short term complications of respiratory distress syndrome?

A

penumothorax
infection
apnoea
intraventricular haemorrhage
pulmonary haemorrhage
necrotising enterocolitis

400
Q

what are 3 long term complications of respiratory distress syndrome?

A

chronic lung disease of prematurity
retinopathy of prematurity
neurological, hearing or visual impairment

401
Q

what is the management of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome?

A

Antenatal maternal glucocorticoids as prophylaxis

Raised ambient Ox - aim 92-95% sats

Surfactant therapy

mechanical ventilation

402
Q

what is transient tachypnoea of the newborn?

A

benign self limiting condition caused by delay in reabsorption of lung liquid after birth

Usually self resolves within 1st day of life

403
Q

what is the 1st line investigation for transient tachypnoea of the newborn?

A

CXR - fluid in horizontal fissure

404
Q

what are 3 risk factors for transient tachypnoea of the newborn?

A

prematurity
gestational diabetes
c-section

405
Q

when can physiological jaundice be present?

A

from 2-10 days of age

406
Q

what are 8 causes of increased production of bilirubin in neonates?

A

haemolytic disease of newborn
ABO incompatibility
Haemorrhage
intraventricular haemorrhage
cephalo-haemorrhage
polycythaemia
sepsis and DIC
G6PD deficiency

407
Q

what are 6 causes of decreased bilirubin clearance in neonates?

A

prematurity
breast milk jaundice
neonatal cholestasis
extrahepatic biliary atresia
endocrine disorders
gilbert syndrome

408
Q

when is jaundice always pathological?

A

in first 24 hours of life

can be sign of sepsis

409
Q

what is kernicterus?

A

brain damage due to high unconjugated bilirubin

410
Q

what causes haemolytic disease of the newborn?

A

rhesus incompatability

411
Q

what is prolonged neonatal jaundice?

A

14+ days in full term babies
21+ days in premature babies

412
Q

what test is done for autoimmune haemolysis?

A

direct coombs test

413
Q

what is used to monitor neonatal jaundice?

A

treatment threshold charts

414
Q

what is the usual treatment of neonatal jaundice?

A

phototherapy with blue light (450nm)

415
Q

what are 3 complications of kernictus?

A

cerebral palsy
learning disability
deafness

416
Q

what is the medical management of supraventricular tachycardia?

A

adenosine - after valsalva manoeuvres

417
Q

what is necrotising enterocolitis?

A

disorder affecting premature neonates where part of bowel becomes necrotic and can lead to perforation

418
Q

what are 5 risk factors for necrotising enterocilitis?

A

very low birth weight or v premature
formula feeds
resp distress and assisted ventilation
sepsis
patent ductus arteriosus and congenital heart disease

419
Q

what are 6 features of necrotising enterocolitis?

A

intolerance to feeds
vomiting green bile
distended tender abdomen
blood in stool
absent bowel sounds
generally unwell

420
Q

what investigation is good for diagnosing necrotising enterocolitis?

A

abdo Xray - supine, lateral, lateral decubitus

421
Q

what can be seen on xray with necrotising enterocolitis?

A

dilated bowel loops
bowel wall oedema
pneumatosis intestinalis - gas in bowel wall
pneumoperitoneum - free gas in peritoneum
gas in portal veins

422
Q

what is the management of necrotising enterocolitis?

A

nil by mouth
iv fluids
total parenteral nutrition
antibiotics
NG tube - to drain fluid and gas

SURGERY

423
Q

what are 8 complications of necrotising enterocolitis?

A

perforation and peritonitis
sepsis
death
strictures
abcess formation
recurrence
long term stoma
short bowel syndrome

424
Q

what are the torch congenital infections?

A

Toxoplasmosis
rubella
cytomegalavirus
herpes simplex
HIV

425
Q

at what gestation is the risk of congenital rubella highest?

A

< 3 months

426
Q

what are 3 features of congenital rubella?

A

Classic triad of - deafness, blindness (congenital cataracts) and congenital heart disease

also learning disability
growth retardation
hepatosplenomegaly
purpuric skin lesions
salt and pepper chorioretinitis
microphthalmia
cerebral palsy

427
Q

can pregnant women be given the MMR vaccine?

A

NO

should give to non-immune mothers postnatally

428
Q

what are 6 features of congenital cytomegalovirus?

A

foetal growth restriction
microcephaly
hearing loss
vision loss
learning disability
seizures

429
Q

what is the classic triad of congenital toxoplasmosis gondii?

A

intracranial calcification
hydrocephalus
chorioretinitis (type of posterior uveitis)

430
Q

what are 6 manifestations of neonatal herpes?

A

external herpes lesions
liver involvement
encephalitis
sezures, tremmors, lethargy, irritability

431
Q

what are 5 complications of chicken pox in pregnancy?

A

foetal varicellar zoster syndrome
pneumonitis
hepatitis
encephalitis
severe neonatal infection

432
Q

what are 6 manifestations of congenital varicella syndrome?

A

foetal growth restriction
microcephaly
hydrocephalus, learnign disability
scars and skin changes
limb hypoplasia
cataracts and chorioretinitis

433
Q

what is given to a baby immediatly after birth?

A

vitamin K IM injection

434
Q

what 9 conditions are tested for in the blood spot test?

A

sickle cell
CF
congenital hypothyroidism
phenylketonuria
medium chain acy-COA dehydrogenase deficiency
maple syrup urine disease
isovaleric acidaemia
glutaric aciduria type 1
homocystin

435
Q

at what age does the heel prick test happen?

A

5 days old

436
Q

how long does the heel prick take to come back?

A

6-8 weeks

437
Q

when is the NIPE examination done?

A

<72 hours of birth

438
Q

when is the NIPE repeated?

A

6-8 weeks by GP

439
Q

when does the ductus arteriosus close?

A

1-3 days

440
Q

how small should the difference in pre-ductal and post-ductal O2 saturations be in the NIPE?

A

<2%
pre-ductal - R hand
post ductal - feet

441
Q

what is the name of oedema of the scalp outside the periosteum due to trauma in birth which crosses suture lines?

A

caput succedaneum

442
Q

what is the name of a collection of blood between the skull and periosteum due to trauma in delivery which does not cross suture lines?

A

cephalohaematoma

443
Q

what is erbs palsy?

A

damage to C5/6 brachial plexus ileading to lweakness in shoulder abduction and external rotation, arm flexion and finger extension

may have a ‘waiters tip appearance’

444
Q

what are 5 common organisms in neonatal sepsis?

A

GBS - most common
E. Coli - most common
Listeria
Klebsiella
staph aureus

445
Q

what is early onset neonatal sepsis?

A

<72 hours

446
Q

what is late onset neonatal sepsis?

A

Onset days 7-28

447
Q

what are 6 risk factors for neonatal sepsis?

A

vaginal GBS colonisation
GBS sepsis in previous baby
Maternal sepsis, chorioamniotitis or fever
prematurity
premature ROM
prolonged rupture of membranes
low birth weight <2.5kg

448
Q

what are 6 red flags for neonatal sepsis?

A

confirmed/suspected sepsis in mother
signs of sock
seizures
term baby needing mechanical ventilation
resp distress starting 4+ hours after burth
presumed sepsis in other multiple

449
Q

what are 10 clinical features of neonatal sepsis?

A

fever
reduced tone and activity
poor feeding
resp distress or apnoea
vomiting
tachy or brady
hypoxia
jaundice <24 hours
seizures
hypoglycaemia

450
Q

what is the nice treatment for neonatal sepsis?

A

monitor if 1 risk factor/clinical feature

start antibiotics within one hour if 2 risk factors/clinical features or 1 red flag

451
Q

what antibiotic should be given in neonatal sepsis?

A

benzylpenicillin PLUS gentamycin

cefotaxime if lower risk

452
Q

what is the ongoing management of neonatal sepsis?

A

check CRP at 24 hours and blood cultures at 36 hours

consider stopping Abx if blood cultures negative and CRP <10 at day 2

453
Q

what counts as extreme preterm?

A

<28 weeks

454
Q

what counts as very preterm?

A

28-32 weeks

455
Q

what counts as moderate/late preterm?

A

32-37 weeks

456
Q

what are 10 early complications of prematurity?

A

respiratory distress syndrome
hypothermia
hypoglycaemia
poor feeding
apnoea and bradycardia
neonatal jaundice
intraventricular haemorrhage
retinopathy of prematurity
necrotising enterocolitis
immature immune system and infection

457
Q

what are 5 long term complications of prematurity?

A

chronic lung disease of prematurity
learnign an dbehvioural difficulties
susceptibility to infections - particularly resp
hearing and visual impairement
cerebral palsy

458
Q

what is apnoea?

A

stopping breathing >20 seconds or shorter periods with oxygen desaturation or bradycardia

459
Q

what is the causes of apnoea in neonates?

A

due to immaturity of the autonomic nervous system

460
Q

what is the management of neonatal apnoea?

A

tactile stimulation
IV caffeine

461
Q

what is the pathophysiology of retinopathy of prematurity?

A

retinal blood vessel formation is stimulated by hypoxia which is the normal condition of the retina during pregnancy so with early exposure to oxygen in prematurity this can stop retinal blood vessel development and cause retinal detachment

462
Q

who should screening for retinopathy of prematurity be offered to?

A

<32 weeks gestation
<1.5kg

463
Q

what is the management of retinopathy of prematurity?

A

transpupillary laser photocoagulation

cyotherapy
injections of intravitreal VEGF inhibitors
Surgery if retinal detachment

464
Q

how is a diagnosis of meconium aspiration confirmed?

A

CXR

465
Q

what are 3 foetal risk factors for meconium aspiration?

A

gestational age >42 weeks
foetal distress
APGAR score <7

466
Q

what ae 5 maternal risk factors for meconium aspiration?

A

HTN
pr-eclampsia
chorioamnionitis
smoking
substance abuse

467
Q

what is the management for suspected HSV encephalitis?

A

aciclovir

468
Q

How do you get infected with listeria?

A

consumption of dairy products, raw vegetables, meats and refrigerated foods

passed from mother to baby placentally

469
Q

what are clinical manifestations of neonatal listeriosis?

A

abortion
prematurity
still birth
neonatal sepsis

470
Q

how can listeria infection be diagnosed prenatally and postnatally?

A

culture or PCR of blood, cervix or amniotic fluid of mother prenatally

culture/PCR of blood, CSF, gastric aspirate, meconium of neonate

471
Q

what is the management of neonatal listeriosis?

A

Ampicillin +/- gentamicin for 21 days

472
Q

what is maternal hyperthyroidism associated with?

A

foetal tachycardia
small for gestational age
prematurity
still birth
congenital malformations

473
Q

what is maternal hypothyroidism associated with?

A

lower IQ and impaired psychomotor development

474
Q

what are 6 risk factors for neonatal hypoglycaemia?

A

IUGR
preterm
Maternal diabetes
hypothermia
Neonatal sepsis
Inborn errors of metabolism

Nestidiolastosis
Beckwith-wiedemann syndrome

475
Q

what are 8 symptoms of neonatal hypoglycaemia?

A

jitters
irritability
tachypnoea
lethargy
weak cry
drowsiness
hypotonia
seizures

apnoea and hypothermia

476
Q

what counts as hypoglycaemia in neonates?

A

<2.6 mmol/L

477
Q

what is the management of asymptomatic hypoglycaemia in neonates?

A

Encourage normal feeding

monitor BMs

478
Q

what are 3 preventative measures for neonatal hypoglycaemia?

A

Keep warm
skin to skin
Early feeding - within 1 hour of birth

479
Q

what is the management of symptomatic hypoglycaemia or very low BMs in neonates?

A

admission to neonatal unit

IV 10% dextrose

480
Q

what is the pathophysiology of cleft lip and palate?

A

lip - failure of fusion of the frontonasal and maxillary processes
Palate - failure of fusion of palatine processes and nasal septum

481
Q

when is a cleft lip and palate usually fixed?

A

lip - 3 months
palate - 6 months - 1 year

482
Q

what are 2 USS signs in pregnancy of oesophageal atresia?

A

polyhydramnios
no stomach bubble

483
Q

what is a clinical sign of oesophageal atresia in neonates?

A

persistant salivation and drooling

484
Q

what is the name of a group of midline congenital defects like oesophageal atresia?

A

VACTERL association

Vertebral
anorectal
cardiac
tracheo-oesophageal
renal
limb

anomalies

485
Q

what is the management of oesophageal atresia?

A

continuous suction of secretions to avoid aspiration until surgery is available

486
Q

what is an exomphalos?

A

where abdominal contents protrude through umbilical ring but are covered by transparent sac formed by amniotic membrane and peritoneum

487
Q

what are 3 conditions associated with exomphalous?

A

Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome
Down’s syndrome
cardiac and kidney malformations

488
Q

what is the management of exomphalos?

A

Caesarean section
staged repair until sac is able to fit inside abdomen of baby

489
Q

what congenital condition is duodenal atresia associated with?

A

downs syndrome

490
Q

what is an x-ray/USS sign of duodenal atresia?

A

‘double bubble’ of of distention of stomach and duodenal cap with absence of air distally

491
Q

what are 3 obstetric complications of diabetes in pregnancy?

A

polyhydramnios
preeclampsia
early and late foetal loss

492
Q

what are 3 foetal complications of diabetes in pregnancy?

A

congenital malformations
IUGR
macrosomia

493
Q

what are 4 neonatal complications of diabetes in pregnancy?

A

neonatal hypoglycaemia
respiratory distress syndrome
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
polycythaemia

494
Q

what is scoliosis?

A

lateral curvature of frontal plane of spine. In severe cases can lead to cardiorespiratory failure from curvature of chest

495
Q

what is torticollis?

A

Head twisting to the side also called wry neck. The most common cause in infants is a sternomastoid tumour.

496
Q

what is the incubation period for mumps?

A

14-25 days

497
Q

what pathogen causes mumps?

A

RNA paramyxovirus

498
Q

what is the presentation of mumps?

A

prodromal fever, muscle aches, lethargy, reduced appetite, headache and dry mouth for a few days

followed by painful parotid swelling

usually self limiting after around a week

499
Q

what are 4 complications of mumps?

A

pancreatitis
orchitis
meningitis
sensorineural hearing loss

500
Q

How is mumps diagnosed?

A

salivary PCR
salivary or blood antibodies

501
Q

what is the management for mumps?

A

supportive - self limiting infection

502
Q

what is the rash and its spread in chicken pox?

A

widespread itchy erythematous raised vesicular blistering lesions - starts as macules then papules then vesicles
Starts on trunk or face and spreads outwards over 2-5 days the crusts after 5 days

503
Q

what are 5 complications of chicken pox?

A

bacterial superinfection (necrotising faciitis)
dehydration
conjunctival lesions
pneumonia
encephalitis (presents with ataxia)

504
Q

what is Ramsay hunt syndrome?

A

Unilateral weakness or paralysis of facial nerve due to reactivation of varicella zoster (type of shingles)

505
Q

what medication may increase risk of secondary bacterial infection in chickenpox?

A

NSAIDs

506
Q

How long can it take someone to become symptomatic after exposure to chicken pox?

A

10 days - 3 weeks

507
Q

what is the management of neonatal varicella zoster infection?

A

varicella zoster Ig
Aciclovir

508
Q

what is the management of chickenpox?

A

Aciclovir - if immunocompromised, >14 years and presenting within 24h, neonates

Calamaine lotion and chlorphenamine for symptoms

509
Q

what is the presentation of measles?

A

fever, coryza and conjunctivitis
followed 2 days later by greyish white spots on the buccal mucosa - KOPLIK SPOTS
followed by rash 3-5 days post fever, classically starting behind ears
self limiting after 7-10 days

510
Q

what sign on examination is pathognomonic for measles?

A

Koplik spots - grey/white spots on buccal mucosa that appear 2 days after fever

511
Q

what is the rash like in measles and how does it spread?

A

starts on face (classically behind ears) 3-5 days after fever and then spreads to rest of body

erythematous macular rash with flat lesions

512
Q

what is the incubation period of measles?

A

10-12 days

513
Q

what are 8 complications of measles?

A

pneumonia - most common cause of death
diarrhoea
dehydration
encephalitis - 1/2 weeks later
meningitis
hearing loss and otitis media - most common
vision loss
death
subacute sclerosing panencephalitis - CNS demyelination 5-10 years post measles exposure

514
Q

what can be given prophylactically after measles exposure in an unvaccinated person?

A

MMR vacine

515
Q

what is the school exclusion criteria for measles?

A

4 days after development of rash

516
Q

what pathogen causes scarlet fever?

A

exotoxins from group A haemolytic strep (strep pyogenes)

517
Q

what is the rash in scarlet fever and how does it spread?

A

red-pink blotchy macular fine pinhead rash with rough SANDPAPER skin
Starts on trunk and spreads outwards spearing palms and soles

may also have flushed cheeks

518
Q

what are 7 features of scarlet fever?

A

sandpaper rash
fever - 24-48h
lethargy. headache, nausea
flushed face
sore throat
Strawberry tongue
cervical lymphadenopathy

519
Q

what is the management of scarlet fever?

A

1 - phenoxymethylpenicillin (penicillin V) for 10 days

2 - azithromycin in PENICILLIN ALLERGY - 5 days

520
Q

what is the school exclusion for scarlet fever?

A

Return 24h after commencing Abx if feel well enough to do so

521
Q

what are 4 complications of scarlet fever?

A

post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis
acute rheumatic fever - typically 20 days after infection
Otitis media - most common
Invasive complications - bacteraemia, meningitis

522
Q

how long is the incubation time for rubella?

A

2 weeks

523
Q

what is the rash in rubella and how does it spread?

A

Erythematous macular rash (milder than measles)
starts on face and spreads to body
lasts 3 days

associated with mild fever, joint pain, sore throat, lymphadenopathy

524
Q

what are 4 rare complications of rubella?

A

thrombocytopenia
encephalitis
arthritis
myocarditis

525
Q

what are 5 presenting features of rubella?

A

erythematous macular rash
mild fever
joint pain
sore throat
lymphadenopathy

526
Q

what investigation can be done for rubella?

A

oral fluid sample

527
Q

what is the school exclusion criteria for rubella?

A

5 days from onset of rash

528
Q

what pathogen causes slapped cheek syndrome?

A

Parvovirus b19

529
Q

what is the presentation of parvovirus B19?

A

fever, coryza and non-specific viral symptoms

followed 2-5 days later by diffuse bright red rash on both cheeks (as though slapped)
a few days later a reticular mildly erythematous affecting trunk and limbs - may be raised and itchy

530
Q

what are 4 complications of parvovirus?

A

aplastic anaemia - sickle cell/thalssaemia/spherocytosis
encephalitis or meningitis
pregnancy complications - foetal death due to hydrops fetalis
rare - hepatitis, myocarditis, nephritis

531
Q

what pathogen causes roseola infantum?

A

HHV-6/7

532
Q

what is the presentation of roseola infantum?

A

presents 1-2 weeks after high fever for 3-5 days which the settles and is followed by a rash

533
Q

what is the rash like in roseola infantum?

A

mild erythematous macular rash on arms, legs, trunk and face that isn’t itchy

534
Q

what are 3 complications of roseola infantum?

A

febrile convulsions

rare - myocarditis, thrombocytopenua, GBS

535
Q

what pathogen causes whooping cough?

A

bordetella pertussis - gram neg

536
Q

what is the presentation of whooping cough?

A

mild coryzal symptoms and low grade fever, dry cough
followed by more severe coughing fits after 1 week so much so people may vomit, faint or have a pneumothorax

infants may present with apnoea spells

537
Q

what are 2 ways to diagnose whooping cough?

A

nasopharangeal PCR or culture

anti-pertussis toxin IgG if cough present >2 weeks

538
Q

what is the management of whooping cough?

A

1 - macrolides - azithromycin, erythromycin, clarithromycin within first 21 days

2 - Co-trimoxazole

539
Q

what is a complication of whooping cough?

A

bronchiectasis

540
Q

what can be given to vulnerable contacts of people with whooping cough?

A

prophylactic antibiotics

541
Q

when are infants vaccinated against pertussis?

A

2, 3, 4 months
3-5 years

542
Q

when are pregnant women offered the pertussis vacciantion?

A

16-32 weeks

543
Q

what bacteria causes diphtheria?

A

corynebacterium diphtheriae

544
Q

what are 5 features of diphtheria?

A

sore throat + difficulty swallowing
fever
lymphadenopathy - bull neck
SOB
pseudomembrane on tonsils and mucosa of pharynx larynx and nose

545
Q

what is one cardiac complication of diphtheria?

A

heart block

546
Q

what is the management of diphtheria?

A

1 - diphtheria antitoxin
Abx - azithromycin, erythromycin, clarithromycin, IM penicillin

547
Q

what is the pathogenic cause of scalded skin syndrome?

A

staph aureus epidermolytic toxins

548
Q

what age group is usually affected by scalded skin syndrome?

A

<5 years

549
Q

what sign is positive in scalded skin syndrome?

A

Nikolysky sign - gentle rubbing of skin causes it to peel away

550
Q

what is a major acute complication of polio?

A

acute flaccid paralysis

551
Q

what is a possible long term complication of polio?

A

post-poliomyelitis syndrome - weakness and fatigue of muscle groups affected in acute illness

552
Q

what is the main cause of viral encephalitis in neonates?

A

HSV-2 - genital herpes

553
Q

what is the most common cause of viral encephalitis?

A

HSV-1 - from cold sores

554
Q

what is the treatment for encephalitis caused by CMV?

A

ganciclovir

555
Q

what are 4 complications of encephalitis?

A

change in personality, memory or cognition
leaning disability
headache
movement disorders

556
Q

what is the most common cause of toxic shock syndrome?

A

group A strep (pyogenese) exotoxins

or s.aureus toxins

557
Q

what are 5 risk factors for toxic shock?

A

Extended tampon use
Post partum infection
surgical procedures - breast reconstruction, hysterectomy, lipo
Other infections
burns
retained foreign body

558
Q

what are 6 presenting features of toxic shock?

A

severe diffuse or localised pain in an extremity
fever
hypotension
diffuse, scarlatina-like red rash, may desquamate
muscle weakness
multiorgan failure - 3+ organs

559
Q

what is the management of strep toxic shock?

A

Removal of infection focus
IV fluids

clindamycin + benzylpenicillin or vancomycin 7-14 days

560
Q

what is the management for staph toxic shock?

A

clindamycin + oxacillin or vancomycin

561
Q

what are 4 complications of toxic shock?

A

bacteraemia
acute resp distress
DIC
renal failure

562
Q

what is the management for oral candidaiasis?

A

miconazole gel
nystatin suspension
fluconazole tablets

563
Q

what does cutaneous candida rash look like?

A

sore and itchy pustular or papular erythematous rash with an irregular edge and SATELLITE lesions

often in flexural areas

564
Q

what is the management of nappy rash?

A

1 - topical hydrocortisone 1% if inflamed

topical imidazoles (clotrimazole), oral antibiotics if severely inflammed

565
Q

what causes hand foot and mouth disease?

A

coxsackie A16 virus

and enterovirus 71

566
Q

what is the incubation period for hand foot and mouth?

A

3-5 days

567
Q

what is the typical history for hand foot and mouth disease?

A

resp illness + fever
1-2 days later - mouth ulcers then red painful possibly itchy blistering spots across body notably on hands, feet and in mouth

568
Q

what is the management for hand foot and mouth?

A

supportive - will resolve in 7-10 days without treatment

does not need school exclusion

569
Q

what are 3 complications of hand foot and mouth disease?

A

dehydration
bacterial superinfection
encephalitis

570
Q

what kind of bacteria in Neisseria meningitidis?

A

gram negative diplococci

571
Q

what is the most common cause of meningitis in neonates?

A

group B strep

572
Q

what are 5 non-specific signs of meningitis in neonates?

A

hypotonia
poor feeding
lethargy
hypothermia
bulging fontanelle

573
Q

what age group do febrile convulsions occur in?

A

ages 6 months - 5 years

574
Q

what are simple febrile convulsions?

A

one generalised tonic clonic <15 minutes

Complete recovery within an hour
No recurrence within 24 hours

575
Q

what is a complex febrile seizure?

A

15-30 minutes
Focal seizure
Repeat seizures in 24 hours

576
Q

when should parents phone an ambulance in febrile seizure?

A

at 5 minutes

577
Q

do antipyretics reduce risk of febrile seizure?

A

NO!

578
Q

what rescue medication can be given in those with recurrent febrile seizures?

A

Bucal midazolam
Rectal diazepam

579
Q

what are 5 possible causes of global developmental delay?

A

downs
fragile X
foetal alcohol syndrome
rett syndrome
Metabolic disorders

580
Q

what are 8 manifestations of foetal alcohol syndrome?

A

microcephaly
thin upper lip
smooth flat philtrum
short palpebral fissure
Cardiac malformations

learning difficulties
behavioural difficulties
hearing and vision problems
cerebral palsy

581
Q

what are 5 possible causes of gross motor delay?

A

cerebral palsy
ataxia
myopathy
spina bifida
visual impairement

582
Q

what are 5 possible causes of fine motor delay?

A

dyspraxia
cerebral palsy
muscular dystrophy
visual impairment
congenital ataxia

583
Q

what are 6 possible causes of language delay?

A

social circumstance
hearing impairement
learning disability
neglect
autism
cerebral palsy

584
Q

what are 3 possible causes of social delay?

A

emotional and social neglect
parenting issues
autism

585
Q

what are the 4 areas of development?

A

gross motor
fine motor and vision
language and hearing
personal and social

586
Q

what is the gross motor development of a 4 month old?

A

start supporting head and keep in line with body

587
Q

what is the gross motor development at 6 months?

A

Maintain sitting position usually supported as unbalanced

588
Q

what is the gross motor development at 15 months?

A

walk unaided

589
Q

what is the gross motor development at 9 months?

A

sit unsupported
start crawling
maintain standing and bouncing position wile supported

590
Q

what is the gross motor development at 12 months?

A

standing and cruising

591
Q

what is the gross motor developement at 18 months?

A

squat and pick things up

592
Q

what is the gross motor development at 2 years?

A

run and kick ball

593
Q

what is the gross motor development at 3 years?

A

climb stairs one foot at time
stand on one leg
ride tricycle

594
Q

what is the gross motor development of a 4 year old?

A

hop
climb stairs normally

595
Q

what are 8 red flags of developemental milestones?

A

lost development
unable to hold object 5 months
not sitting unsupported at 12 months
not standing independently 18 months
not walking 2 years
not running 2.5 years
no words 18 months
no interest in others 18 months

596
Q

what is social development at 6 weeks?

A

smiles

597
Q

what is social development at 3 months?

A

communicates pleasure

598
Q

what is social development at 6 months?

A

curious and engages with people

599
Q

what is social development at 9 months?

A

apprehensive around strangers

600
Q

what is social development at 12 months

A

engages with others
pointing and handing objects
waves bye
claps

601
Q

what is social development at 2 years?

A

interest in others beyond parents
parallel play

602
Q

what is social development by 3 years?

A

play with others
bowel control

603
Q

what is social development by 4 years?

A

has best friend
dry at night
dresses self
imaginative play

604
Q

what is language development at 3 months?

A

cooing

605
Q

what is language development at 9 months?

A

babbling

606
Q

what is language development at 12 months?

A

say 1 word in context
follows simple instructions

607
Q

what is language development at 18 months?

A

5-10 words

608
Q

what is language development at 2 years?

A

combines 2 words

609
Q

what is language development at 3 years?

A

basic 3 word sentences

610
Q

what is language development at 4 years?

A

tells stories

611
Q

what is fine motor development at 8 weeks?

A

fixes and attempts to follow
recognises faces

612
Q

what is fine motor development at 6 months?

A

palmar grasp

613
Q

what is fine motor development at 9 months?

A

scissor grasp between thumb and forefinger

614
Q

what is fine motor development at 12 months?

A

pincer grasp with tip of thumb and forefinger
scribbles randomly

615
Q

what is fine motor development at 14-18 months?

A

clumsily use cutlery
tower of 2-4 blocks

616
Q

what is the first line management for absence seizures?

A

ethosuximide

617
Q

when do infantile spasms usually start?

A

4-8 months

more common in males

618
Q

what are 3 features of infantile spasms?

A

Attacks - flexion of head and trunk followed by extension of arms
Lasts 1-2 seconds but is repeated up to 50 times
Progressive mental handicap

619
Q

what is the prognosis for infantile spasms?

A

1/3rd die by 25
1/3rd keep seizures
1/3rd seizure free

620
Q

what is seen on EEG in infantile spasm?

A

Hypsarrhythmia

621
Q

what are 2 treatment options for infantile spasms?

A

1 - Vigabatrin

ACTH - adrenocorticotropic hormone

622
Q

what is klinefelter syndrome?

A

when a male has a additional X chromosomes making them 47XXY

623
Q

what is the presentation of Klinefelters syndrome? (8)

A

normal development as male till puberty then

taller height
wider hips and gynaecomasitia
weaker muscles
small testes
reduced libido
shyness
infertility
subtle learning difficulties

624
Q

what hormone differences are there in klinefelter’s syndrome?

A

Raised gonadotrophin
Low testosterone

625
Q

what is the management of klinefelters syndrome?

A

testosterone injections
advanced IVF techniques
breast reduction

626
Q

what are 4 things that at at increased risks in klinefelters?

A

breast cancer (more than other men)
osteoporosis
diabetes
anxiety and depression

627
Q

what is turners syndrome?

A

females with single X chromosome on chromosome 45 -> 45XO

628
Q

what are 9 features of turner syndrome?

A

short stature
webbed neck
high arching palate
downward sloping eyes with ptosis
broad chest and with wide spaced nipples
cubitus valgus - exaggerated elbow angle
underdeveloped ovaries
late/incomplete puberty
infertile

629
Q

what are 9 conditions associated with turners syndrome?

A

recurrent otitis media
recurrent UTI
Cardiac - 1 - bicuspid aortic valve, 2- coarctation of aorta, pulmonary stenosis
hypothyroid
hypertension
obesity
diabetes
osteoporosis
horse shoe kidney
learning difficulties
primary amenorrhoea

630
Q

what are 3 managements for turners?

A

growth hormone therapy for height
oestrogen and progesterone for female secondary sex characteristics
fertility treatment

631
Q

what is the genetic abnormality in downs?

A

Trisomy 21

632
Q

what are 8 dysmorphic features of downs syndrome?

A

Brachycephaly (small head with flat occiput)
flattened face and nose
prominent epicanthic folds
Brushfield spots in iris
protruding tongue
Small low set ears
upward sloping palpebral fissures
single palmar crease and large sandal gap
hypotonia
short neck
short stature

633
Q

what are 8 complications of downs?

A

recurrent otitis media and deafness (eustachion tube abnormalities)
visual problems
hypothyroidism
cardiac defects - ASD, VSD, PDA, tetralogy
atlantoaxial instability
leukaemia - AML (most common) and ALL
Alzheimers
Hirschprungs disease and duodenal atresia

634
Q

what cardiac defects are more likely in downs?

A

ASD
VSD
PDA
Tetralogy of fallot

635
Q

what nuchal thickness is indicative of downs?

A

> 6mm

636
Q

what is the combinded test for downs syndrome?

A

11-14 weeks
USS for nuchal translucency
bloods - High B-HCG, Low PAPPA

637
Q

what is the tripple test?

A

between 14-20 weeks

maternal bloods -
High B-HCG,
Low alpha-fetoprotein
Low serum oestrodiol

638
Q

what is the quadruple test for downs syndrome?

A

14-20 weeks

High HCG
Low AFP
Low Total Oestrodiol
High inhibin-A

639
Q

what are 2 ways of antenatal testing for downs?

A

chorionic villus sampling
amniocentesis

640
Q

what are 4 routine follow ups needsd in downs?

A

regular thyroid checks - 2 yearly
echo
regular audiometry
regular eye checks

641
Q

what is the average life expectancy for downs?

A

60 years

642
Q

what is the genetics underlying patau syndrome?

A

trisomy 13

643
Q

what genetics cause Edwards syndrome?

A

trisomy 18

644
Q

What are 7 key features of Edwards syndrome syndrome?

A

Rocker(rounded)-bottom feet
Overlapping fingers
low set ears
Cardiac and renal malformations
low birth weight
prominent occiput
small mouth and chin
short sternum

645
Q

what are 6 features of Pataus?

A

Polydactyl
cleft lip and palate
structural defects of brain
scalp defects
small eyes and eye defects
cardiac and renal malformations

May also have rockerbottom feet

646
Q

what gene is affected in fragile X syndrome?

A

fragile X mental retardation 1 gene on X chromosome

males are always affected but females vary

due to trinucleotide repeat

647
Q

what are 8 features of fragile X?

A

intellectual disability
long narrow face
large low set ears
large testes after puberty
hypermobile joints
ADHD
ASD
Seizures

648
Q

what gene is affected in Angelman syndrome?

A

UBE3A gene on chromosome 15

649
Q

what are key features of Angelman syndrome?

A

Developmental delay - severe delay/absence in speech
Coordination and balance problems
Fascination with water
happy demeanour
inappropriate laughter
hand flapping
abnormal sleep patterns
epilepsy
ADHD
Dysmorphic features - microcephaly, fair skin, hair and blue eyes, wide mouth and widely spaced teeth

650
Q

what is the genetics of prader-willi?

A

loss of functional genes on proximal arm of chromosome 15 inhertied from father

651
Q

what are 6 key features of prader-willi?

A

constant insatiable hunger
hypotonia
mild/moderate learning disability
hypogonadism
dysmorphic - narrow forehead, almond eyes, thin upper lip, downturned mouth, squint
mental health problems
Fair soft skin, prone to bruising

652
Q

what is the management of prader willi?

A

growth hormone - for improving muscle development an body composition

dieticians, education support, psych, physio, OT

653
Q

what is the inheritance of most of noonan syndrome?

A

autosomal dominant

654
Q

what are 8 features of noonan syndrome?

A

short stature
broad forehead - triangular shaped face
downward sloping eyes with ptosis
hypertelorism (widespaced eyes)
prominent nasolabial folds
low set ears
webbed neck
widely spaced nipples

655
Q

what are 6 conditions associated with noonan syndrome?

A

congenital heart disease - pulmonary stenosis, HOCM, ASD
Undescended testes
learning disability
lymphoedema
increased risk of leukaemia and neuroblastoma

656
Q

what is the cause of william syndrome?

A

deletion on chromosome 7 - usually random rather than inherited

657
Q

what are 8 features of william syndrome?

A

broad forehead
starburst iris
flattened nasal bridge
long philtrum
wide mouth and spaced teeth
small chin
sociable and trusting personality
mild learning disability

658
Q

what are 4 conditions associated with william syndrome?

A

supravalvular aortic tenosis
hypercalcaemia
ADHD
hypertension

659
Q

what is the management for williams sydrome?

A

echo and BP monitoring
low calcium diet

660
Q

what is gower’s sign?

A

children with proximal weakness get onto their hands and knees then go into downward dog and push themselves up using their hands

MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY

661
Q

what is the name of the sign that is the way children with muscular dystrophy get up?

A

Gower’s sign

662
Q

what are 7 types of muscular dystrophy?

A

duchennes muscular dystrophy
beckers muscular dystrophy
faciosapulohumeral muscular dystrophy
oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy
limb-girdle muscular dystrophy
emery-dreifuss muscular dystrophy

663
Q

what is the inheritance for duchennes MD?

A

X-linked recessive

664
Q

what is the genetic cause of duchennes muscular dystrophy?

A

defective dystrophin gene on X-chromosome due to frame shift
Dystrophin holds muscles together at cellular levels

665
Q

what is the presentation of Duchenne MD?

A

Progressive proximal muscle weakness from 2-5 years
Calf pseudohypertrophy
Gower’s sign
waddling gait

30% have intellectual impairment

666
Q

what are 2 investigations for Duchenne MD?

A

Creatinine kinase
genetic testing

667
Q

what is the prognosis for duchennes MD?

A

25-35 years

668
Q

what is the management of duchennes MD?

A

oral steroids - slow progress of muscle weakness

creatine supplements improve muscle strength

669
Q

when do symptoms start to appear in Duchenne MD?

A

3-5 years

670
Q

what are 3 complications of Duchenne MD?

A

Dilated cardiomyopathy
Respiratory failure - due to weakness of diaphragm
Arrhythmias

671
Q

when do symptoms start to appear in beckers MD?

A

8-12 years

less severe than Duchenne

Require wheelchair in adulthood

672
Q

when does myotonic dystrophy usually present?

A

adulthood

673
Q

what are 4 key features of myotonic dystrophy?

A

progressive muscle weakness
prolonged muscle contractions
cataracts
cardiac arrhythmia

674
Q

what are 4 key features of facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy?

A

weakness around face progressing to shoulders and arms
sleeping with eyes slightly open
weak pursing lips
unable to blow out cheeks without air leaking from mouth

Onset in childhood

675
Q

what are 3 key features of oculopharyngeal MD?

A

bilateral ptosis
restricted eye movements
swallowing problems

usually presents in late adulthood

676
Q

what is limb girdle MD?

A

presents in teenage years with progressive weakness around limb girdles - hips and shoulders

677
Q

what is emery-dreifuss MD?

A

presents in childhood with contractures which restricts range of movement
also progressive weakness and wasting of muscles starting with upper arms and lower legs

678
Q

what bacteria causes TB?

A

mycobacterium tuberculosis

679
Q

what stain is required in TB?

A

Zeihl-neelson stain

acid-fast bacilli that turn red against blue background on Z-N

680
Q

what are 8 symptoms of TB?

A

cough
haemoptysis
lethargy
fever/night sweats
wt loss
lymphadenopathy
erythema nodosum
spinal pain

681
Q

what are 2 investigations for TB?

A

mantoux test
interferon gamma release assay

682
Q

what is the mantoux test?

A

for TB
inject tuberculin proteins into intradermal space and measure size of injection site at 72 hours - >5mm = positive

683
Q

what is the appearance of disseminated miliary TB on CXR?

A

millet seeds uniformally distributed

684
Q

what is the treatment for active TB?

A

RIPE

Rifampicin - 6 months
Isoniazid - 6 months
Pyrazinamide - 2 months
Ethanbutol - 2 months

685
Q

what is the treatment of latent TB?

A

isoniazid and rifampicin 3 months
or isoniazid for 6 months

686
Q

what are 3 side effect of rifampicin?

A

red/orange piss and tears

reduced CYP450 drug effectiveness - COCP

hepatotoxic

687
Q

what should be prescribed with isoniazid?

A

pyridoxine (vit B6)

688
Q

what are 2 side effects of isoniazid?

A

peripheral neuropathy
hepatotoxic

689
Q

what are 2 side effects of pyrazinamide?

A

hyperuricaemia => gout and kidney stones
hepatotoxic

690
Q

what are 2 side effects of ethambutol?

A

colour blindness
reduced visual acuity

691
Q

what are 3 risks of undescended testes?

A

testicular torsion
infertility
testicular cancer

692
Q

what are 5 risk factors for undescended testes?

A

FHx
low birth weight
small for gestational age
prematurity
maternal smoking

693
Q

what is the management for unilateral undescended testes?

A

watch and wait for 3 months then refer

orchidopexy between 6-12 months

694
Q

what is the management of bilateral undescended testes?

A

urgent review within 24 hours

695
Q

what are 6 presentations of congenital hypothyroidism?

A

usually picked up on blood spot

prolonged neonatal jaundice
poor feeding
constipation
increased sleeping
reduced activity
slow growth and development

696
Q

what antibody is present in hashimotos?

A

antithyroid peroxidase antibodies and antithroglobulin antibodies

697
Q

what causes congenital adrenal hyperplasia?

A

congenital deficiency in 21-hydroxylase enzyme causing underproduction of cortisol and aldosterone and overproduction of androgens (testosterone)

Causes increased sodium and potassium excretion

698
Q

what is the inheritance pattern for congenital adrenal hyperplasia?

A

autosomal recessive

699
Q

what is the pathophysiology of congenital adrenal hyperplasia?

A

lack of 21-hydroxylase which converts progesterone into aldosterone and cortisol

progesterone can be converted to testosterone without 21-hydroxylase enzyme therefore all progesterone is converted to testosterone instead of aldosterone and cortisol

700
Q

what is the presentation of congenital adrenal hyperplasia in severe cases?

A

enlarged clitoris in females
hyponatraemia
hyperkalaemia
hypoglycaemia

poor feeding
vomiting
dehydration
arrhythmias

SKIN HYPERPIGMENTATION

701
Q

what is the presentation of congenital adrenal hyperplasia in mild cases?

A

female
- tall for age
- facial hair
- absent periods
- deep voice
- early puberty
Males
- tall or age
- deep voice
- large penis
- small testicles
- early puberty

702
Q

what investigations can be done for congenital adrenal hyperplasia?

A

serum 17-hydroxyprogesterone levels
serum electrolytes - hyponatraemia, hyperkalaemia, acidosis
serum hormone levels
genetic testing

703
Q

what is the management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia?

A

cortisol replacement - hydrocortisone
aldosterone replacement - fludrocortisone

virilised genitals corrective surgery

704
Q

what are 6 complications of congenital adrenal hyperplasia?

A

adrenal crisis
infertibility
short stature
peripheral precocious puberty
metabolic abnormalities
psychological issues

705
Q

what is the inheritance pattern for androgen insensitivity syndrome?

A

X-linked recessive due to mutation on androgen receptor gene on X-chromosome in XY males

706
Q

what is the pathophysiology of androgen insensitivity syndrome?

A

cells are unresponsive to androgen hormones due to a lack of androgen receptors leading to excess androgens which are converted to oestrogen resulting in female secondary sexual characteristics and external female phenotypes from birth. Internally there are testes in the abdo/inguinal canal but no internal female organs due to the testes releasing anti-Mullerian hormone

707
Q

what are 2 presentations of androgen insensitivity syndrome?

A

inguinal hernias
primary amenorrhoea

708
Q

what will hormone bloods be like in androgen insensitivity syndrome?

A

Raised LH
normal/raised FSH
Normal/raised testosterone for a man
Raised oestrogen for a man

709
Q

what is the management for androgen insensitivity syndrome?

A

bilateral orchidectomy - testicular tumours
oestrogen therapy
vaginal dilators and surgery

710
Q

what is a wilms tumour?

A

nephroblastoma

one of the most common childhood malignancies

711
Q

what age does Wilms tumours usually present in?

A

<5 years

712
Q

what are 4 congential syndromes that increase risk of wilms tumour?

A

WAGR syndrome - wilms tumour, aniridia, genitourinary anomalies, mental retardation
Denys-drash syndrome - wilms, renal failure, ambiguous genitalia
Beckwith-weidmann syndrome - congenital overgrowth
Hemihypertrophy - overgrowth on one side of the body

713
Q

what are 7 presentations of Wilms tumours?

A

abdo pain
painless haematuria
lethargy
fever
HTN
Weight loss
Abdo mass

714
Q

What is the first line Ix for a Wilms tumour?

A

USS abdo

715
Q

what is the management of Wilms tumour?

A

refer for r/v in <48h if suspected

surgical excision +/- nephrectomy

+/- adjuvant chemo/radio

716
Q

what is the prognosis for Wilms tumour?

A

up to 90% cure in early stages

717
Q

what is the most common leukaemia in children?

A

1st - ALL

2nd - AML

718
Q

what is the most common leukaemia affecting people with Down’s?

A

AML

719
Q

what age is the peak incidence of ALL?

A

2-3 years

720
Q

what age is the peak incidence of AML?

A

<2 years

721
Q

what are 4 conditions that are risk factors for leukaemia?

A

Down syndrome
kleinfelter syndrome
Noonan syndrome
faconi’s anaemia

722
Q

what is the prognosis for ALL?

A

80% cure rate

723
Q

what are 7 complications of chemo?

A

failure of treatment
stunted growth and development
immunodeficiency and infection
neurotoxicity
infertility
secondary malignancy
cardiotoxicity

724
Q

what causes Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura?

A

type 2 hypersensitivity reaction that casues antibodies to target and destroy platelets either spontaneously or triggered due to viral infection

725
Q

what age group does idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura present in?

A

<10 years

726
Q

what is the management for severe idiopathic throbocytopenic purpura?

A

prednisolone
IVIG
blood transfusion if required
platelet transfusion may work temporarily

727
Q

what are 4 complications of ITP?

A

chronic ITP
anaemia
intracrania and subrachnoid haemorrhage
GI bleeds

728
Q

what are 5 causes of anaemia in infants?

A

physiological anaemia
anaemia of prematurity
blood loss
haemolysis
twin-twin transfusion syndrome

729
Q

what are 3 causes of haemolysis in neonates?

A

Haemolytic disease of the newborn
Hereditary spherocytosis
G6PD deficiency

730
Q

what is physiological anaemia of infancy?

A

normal dip in haemoglobin at 6-9 weeks due to high O2 at birth

731
Q

what are 4 reasons for anaemia of prematurity?

A

less time in utero getting iron from mum
RBC production cant keep up with growth
reduced EPO
blood tests

732
Q

what is the treatment for helminth infection?

A

albendazole or mebendazole

733
Q

what can interfere with iron absorption?

A

acid from stomach is required to comvert iron into ferrous (Fe2+) form so PPIs can interfere with absorption

also coeliac or crohns

734
Q

what test can be used to identify haemolytic disease of the newborn?

A

direct coombs test

735
Q

what deficiency causes haemophilia A?

A

factor VIII

736
Q

what deficiency causes haemophilia B?

A

factor IX

737
Q

what is the inheritance pattern for haemophilia?

A

X-linked recessive

738
Q

what is von willebrand factor?

A

a glycoprotein important in platelet adhesion and aggregation (formation of platelet plug)

739
Q

what are the 3 types of von-willebrand factor disease?

A

1 - partial deficiency
2 - reduced function
3 - complete deficiency

740
Q

what is the acute management of von willebrand disease?

A

desmopressin (stimulated release of vWF from endothelial cells)
Tranexamic acid
vWF infusion +/- factor VIII

741
Q

what is faconi anaemia?

A

rare inherited disorder of gradual bone marrow failure and birth defects eventually leading to aplastic anaemia

742
Q

what is kallmann syndrome and 3 features?

A

an X linked disorder

Causes hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism due to failure of GnRH release

Delayed puberty
Low sex hormones, LH and FSH very low
ANOSMIA

Clef lip/palate and visual/hearing defects are sometimes seen

743
Q

what are the three key areas affected by Autism?

A

deficits in
social interaction
communication and behaviour

744
Q

what are 6 possible social diferences in autism?

A

lack of eye contact
delay in smiling
avoids physical contact
unable to read non-verbal cues
difficulty establishing friendships
no desire to share attention (play with others)

745
Q

what are 4 communication diferences in autism?

A

delay, absence or regression in language
lack of appropriate non-erbal communication
difficulty with imaginative or imitative behaviours
repetitive use of words or phrases

746
Q

what are 6 behavioural differences in autism?

A

greater interest in things than people
sterotypical repetitive movements
intensive deep interests
repetitive behaviours and fixed routines
anxiety and distress with deviation from routine
extremely restricted food preferences

747
Q

what are 6 features of ADHD?

A

very short attention span
quick moving from one activity to another
quick loss of interest in task or inability to persist with challenging task
constantly moving or fidgeting
impulsive behaviour
disruptive or rule breaking

748
Q

what are 3 ADHD meds?

A

methyphenidate - ritalin
dexamfetamine
atomoxetine

749
Q

what is the first line antidepressant in children?

A

Fluoxetine 10-20mg

750
Q

what are 8 signs of dehydration?

A

appear unwell
altered consciousness
sunken eyes
tachycardia
tachypnoea
reduced skin turgor
dry mucous membranes
decreased urine outpt

751
Q

what is the first line maintenance fluid choice in children >28 days?

A

0.9% NaCl + 5% glucose

752
Q

what is the first line fluid choice in neonate <28 days?

A

if well 10% dextrose if unwell seek advice

753
Q

what is the formula for maintenance fluids in >28 days of life?

A

100 mk/kg/day 1st 10kg
50ml/kg/day 2nd 10kg
20 ml/kg/day >20kg

754
Q

what is the maintenance fluid requirements for <28 days?

A

day 1 - 50-60 ml/kg/day
2 - 70-80 ml/kg/day
3 - 80-100 ,l/kg/day
4 - 100-120 ml/kg/day
5-28 - 120-150 ml/kg/day

755
Q

what is the calculation for percentage dehydration?

A

(well weight - current weight)/well weight

X100

756
Q

how do you calculate fluid deficit?

A

% dehydration X weight (kG) X 10

757
Q

how do you calculate total fluid requirement?

A

maintenance fluid + fluid deficit

758
Q

what fluids should be given for resucitation?

A

0.9% NaCl
10 ml/Kg <10 mins

759
Q

what is the normal ages to start to develop secondary sexual characteristics in males and females?

A

males - 9 years
females - 8 years

development before this age is precocious puberty

760
Q

what are are 8 complications of obesity?

A

Slipped upper femoral epiphysis (SUFE)
idiopathic intracranial hypertension
hypoventilation syndrome
fatty liver disease
T2DM
PCOS
HTN
abnormal blood lipids

761
Q

what medication can be given to severely obese children >12 years?

A

orlistat

762
Q

what are 4 causes of gonadotrophin (pituitary) dependant precocious puberty?

A

idiopathic/familial
CNS abnormalities - congenital, tumours (neurfibromatosis, craniopharyngioma)
Hypothyroism

763
Q

what are 5 gonadotrophin independent causes of precocious puberty?

A

adrenal tumour
congenital adrenal hyperplasia
ovarian/testicular tumour (granulosa/leydig cell)
Exogenous sex steroids

764
Q

what age is usually affected by premature breast development (thelarche) absent of any other signs of precocious puberty?

A

6 months - 2 years

fluctuating development of breast buds which is self limiting and does not require treatment

765
Q

what is premature pubarche (adrenarche)?

A

when pubic hair develops precociously with no other signs of sexual development most commonly caused by accentuation of normal maturation androgen. More common in non-white population. Leads to increased risk of PCOS in adult life.

766
Q

what is delayed puberty in males and females?

A

> 14 years in females
15 years in males

767
Q

what are 7 causes of delayed puberty?

A

congenital/familial - most common
hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism
Hypergonadotrophic hypogonadism

768
Q

what are 4 causes of hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism?

A

systemic disease - CF, asthma, crohns
Hypothalamo-pituitary disorders - tumours, kallman syndrome, pituitary dysfunction
acquired hypothyroidism

769
Q

what are 3 causes of hypergonadotrophic hypogonadism?

A

chromosomal abnormalities - klinefelter syndrome, turner syndrome
steroid hormone enzyme deficiencies
acquired gonadal damage

770
Q

what is the most common solid tumour in children?

A

brain tumour

771
Q

what is the most common brain tumour in children?

A

astrocytomas - raneg from benign to the highly malignant glioblastoma multiforme

772
Q

what is the clinical presentation of brain tumour?

A

persistant/recurrent vomiting
problems with balance, coordination or walking
behaviour change
abnormal eye movement
seizures
abnormal head positioning
headache
blurred/double vision
lethargy
deteriorating school work/developmental delay
increasing head size in infants

773
Q

what is medulloblastoma?

A

2nd most common childhood brain tumour

arises in midline of posteriod fossa and may spread through CSF to spinal mets

774
Q

what is an ependymoma?

A

brain tumour that behaves much like medulloblastoma but arises in posterior fossa

775
Q

what is a brainstem glioma?

A

malignant brain tumour with very poor prognosis

776
Q

what is a craniophryngioma?

A

developmental tumour arising from squamous remnant of rathke pouch - non-malignant but locally invasive

777
Q

what age group is affected by neuroblastoma?

A

<6 years

778
Q

where do neuroblastomas arise from?

A

neural crest tissue in adrenal medulla and sympathetic nervous system

779
Q

what is the presentation of neuroblastoma?

A

mostly abdo mass but primary tumour may be anywhere along sympathetic chain from neck to pelvis

pallor, wt loss, abdo mass, hepatomegally, bone pain, limp, proptosis

780
Q

what investigations can be does for neuroblastoma?

A

urinary catecholamine metabolite levels (VMA/HVA)

BIOPSY

781
Q

what congenital condition is associated with increased risk of neuroblastoma?

A

noonan syndrome

782
Q

what is the inheritance pattern for retinoblastomas and what chromosome is it found on?

A

autosomal dominant - incomplete penetrance

chromosome 13

783
Q

what are 2 presenting features of retinoblastoma?

A

red reflex turns white (leukocoria)
squint
ocular inflammation and redness
vision loss

784
Q

what is the management of retinoblastoma?

A

systemic chemo
local therapies - laser photocoagulation or thermotherapy
enucleation - removal of eyeball
orbital exenteration
radiotherapy

785
Q

what is the most common liver tumour in children?

A

hepatoblastoma

usually presents with bloating and abdo mass

786
Q

what serum maker an be used for hepatoblastoma?

A

Alpha fetoprotein

787
Q

when does the palmar reflex usually disappear?

A

2-6 months

788
Q

when does the sucking reflex usually start?

A

around 32 weeks gestation - not fully developed until 36 weeks

789
Q

how long does the moro reflex last?

A

around 2 months

790
Q

how long does the stepping reflex last?

A

around 2 months

791
Q

how long does the rooting reflex last?

A

around 4 months

792
Q

what does use of NSAIDs in chicken pox increase risk of?

A

necrotising fasciitis - increase risk of bacterial infection

793
Q

what is the infectivity period of chicken pox?

A

from 4 days pre-rash to around 5 days after rash appears when all crusted over

794
Q

when is the meningitis B vaccine given?

A

2 months, 4 months, 12 months

795
Q

what is the proper name for threadworms?

A

enterobius vermicularis

796
Q

what is the management for threadworms?

A

Mebendazole single dose for whole household

only for >6 months

797
Q

what does a blood gas with pyloric stenosis look like?

A

Hypochloraemia
Hypokalaemia
elevated bicarb

798
Q

what are 5 causes of obesity in children?

A

downs syndrome
prader-willi syndrome
growth hormone deficiency
hypothyroid
cushings syndrome

799
Q

what are 5 consequences of obesity in children?

A

Ortho - SUFE, MSK Pains, Blounts disease
Psycho - bullying, low self esteem
sleep apnoea
benign intracranial hypertension
long term - T2DM, hypertension, IHD

800
Q

what is the management for infantile spasms?

A

Prednisolone
Vigabatrin

801
Q

what inheritance pattern is there in achondropasia?

A

autosomal dominant

802
Q

what mutation causes achondroplasia?

A

mutation in the fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR-3) gene

803
Q

what are 5 features of achondroplasia?

A

short limbs (rhizomelia) with shortened fingers (brachydactyly)
large head with frontal bossing and narrow foramen magnum
midface hypoplasia with a flattened nasal bridge
‘trident’ hands - gap between middle and ring finger
lumbar lordosis

804
Q

what is the management of asthma <5 years?

A

SABA
+ ICS for 8 weeks
+ leukotriene receptor antagonist (LTRA)

refer to secondary care

805
Q

what is a paeds ICS low dose?

A

<200 micrograms

806
Q

what is a paeds ICS high dose?

A

> 400 micrograms

807
Q

what are 2 conditions associated with hypospadias?

A

cryptorchidism
inguinal hernia

808
Q

what is a venous hum?

A

innocent murmur heard just below clavicles of blood returning to heart

809
Q

what is stills murmour?

A

innocent murmur of Low-pitched sound heard at the lower left sternal edge

810
Q

what are 8 features of innocent murmurs?

A

soft-blowing murmur in the pulmonary area or short buzzing murmur in the aortic area
may vary with posture
localised with no radiation
no diastolic component
no thrill
no added sounds (e.g. clicks)
asymptomatic child
no other abnormality

811
Q

what is the management of asymptomatic neonatal hypoglycaemia?

A

encourage feeding + monitor

812
Q

what is the management of symptomatic neonatal hypoglycaemia?

A

SCBU
IV 10% dextrose

813
Q

Is perthes usually unilateral or bilateral?

A

unilateral - only bilateral 10% of time

814
Q

How is perthes disease diagnosed?

A

Bilateral hip X-rays

815
Q

what vaccines are given at 8 weeks?

A

6 in 1 (DTaP, IPV, Hib, Hep B),
Men B
Rotavirus

816
Q

what vaccines are given at 12 weeks?

A

6 in 1 (DTaP, IPV, Hib, Hep B)
Pneumococcal
Rotavirus

817
Q

what vaccines are given at 16 weeks?

A

6in1(DTaP,IPV,Hib,HepB)
MenB.

818
Q

what vaccines are given at 1 year?

A

Hib/Men C
Pneumococcal booster
MMR
Men B booster.

819
Q

what vaccines are given at 3 years (4 months)?

A

DTap/IPV - Diptheria, Tetenus, Petussus, Polio
MMR.

820
Q

what vaccine is given at 12-13 years?

A

HPV

821
Q

what vaccines are given at 14 years?

A

Tetanus, diphtheria, polio
Men ACWY.

822
Q

what is in the 6 in 1 vaccine?

A

Diphtheria
Tetanus
Pertussis
Hib
Hepatitis B
Inactivated Polio Vaccine

823
Q

when is the 6 in 1 vaccine given?

A

8, 12 and 16 weeks

824
Q

when is the MMR vaccine given?

A

12 months and 3 years

825
Q

When is the rotavirus vaccine given?

A

8 and 12 weeks

826
Q

when is the men B vaccine given?

A

8 and 16 weeks
booster at 1 year

827
Q

what are the two main sanctuary sites for leukaemia?

A

CNS
Testes

most likely to have secondary malignancies

828
Q

what is DiGeorge syndrome and it’s features?

A

22q11.2 deletion

congenital heart disease (e.g. tetralogy of Fallot), learning difficulties, hypocalcaemia, recurrent viral/fungal diseases, cleft palate

829
Q

what is the name of deep rapid breathing in acidosis to rid body of CO2?

A

kassmaul breathing - seen in DKA

830
Q

what is benign rolandic epilepsy?

A

twitching numbness or tingling episodes usually at night or when tired between ages of 4-12 years

Can develop to tonic clonic

child otherwise normal and has normal prognosis

EEG has centrotemporal spikes

831
Q

When does neonatal hypoglycaemia require treatment?

A

if symptomatic or BM <1 mmol/L

832
Q

what is the mangement of neonatal hypoglycaemia?

A

2.5 mg/Kg 10% dextrose

833
Q

what is the management of foecal impaction?

A

1 - macrogol laxative (movicol)
2 - senna if doesnt work after 1 week

use lactulose if macrogol isn’t tolerate

834
Q

what surgery is done in Hirschprungs?

A

Swensen’s procedure

835
Q

what is the most common cause of convergent squint?

A

hypermetropia (long sightedness)

836
Q

what extra feature is present in pentalogy of Fallot?

A

ASD

837
Q

what is a discoid meniscus?

A

A developmental abnormality causing a disc shaped meniscus usually on the lateral side

838
Q

what is the presentation of discoid meniscus?

A

locking or popping of knee along with pain and swelling

839
Q

what is the management of discoid meniscus?

A

arthroscopic partial meniscectomy

840
Q

what are 8 medications that can cause neonatal abstinence syndrome?

A

Opioids
methadone
benzos
cocaine
amphetamines
nicotine or cannabis
alcohol
SSRIs/Antidepressants

841
Q

when does opioid, diazepam, SSRI and alcohol withdrawal occur in neonates?

A

3-72 hours after birth

842
Q

when does methadone and longer acting benzos withdrawal occur in neonates?

A

24 hours - 21 days

843
Q

what are 6 CNS signs of neonatal abstinence syndrome?

A

Irritability
increased tone
high pitched cry
not settling
tremors
seizures

844
Q

what are 4 vasomotor and resp symptoms of abstinence syndrome?

A

yawning
sweating
unstable temp
tachypnoea

845
Q

what are 4 metabolic manifestations of abstinence syndrome?

A

poor feeding
regurg and vomiting
hypoglycaemia
loose stools and sore nappy area

846
Q

what are 2 oral treatments that can be given for abstinence syndrome?

A

opioid withdrawal - oral morphine sulphate

non-opiate withdrawal - phenobarbitone

Phase 4 (22 decks)

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