p1.1.2 protests and action (US)

Question 1

who was emmett till?

Answer 1

emmett till was a 14 year year old black boy brought up in the north. in 1955, he was sent by his mother to spend the summer with his relatives in the south
he apparently spoke inappropriately to a female cashier: the owner of the store and his half brother took emmett from his grandfather’s house, beat him to death and then dumped his body in a nearby river
his body was found three days later. he had an open casket funeral so that people could see the damage that was done to him

Question 2

who was rosa parks?

Answer 2

rosa parks was an active member of the NAACP for many years: she was branch secretary, worked on voter registration campaigns and ran for the NAACP youth council. she was angered by the injustice of segregated public transport
1 december 1955: she refused to surrender her seat for a white passenger on the bus and was arrested
rosa was a respectable member of the community, which made her case a good option to take up

Question 3

who were e.d. nixon and jo ann robinson?

Answer 3

nixon was a railway porter who was inspired by a. phillip randolph. he was president of the alabama state branch of the NAACP
robinson was the president of the women’s political council

Question 4

what was the montgomery bus boycott?

Answer 4

the boycott would start on the day of rosa park’s trial, 5 december. nixon called a meeting with church ministers (who announced the plans in their sermons on the sunday before the boycott) and others whose leadership would be crucial
the main aim of the boycott was to hit the bus company’s owners in their pockets - black people made up the majority of the buses’ users
to force the company to agree to their demands, they would have to extend the boycott. nixon called a meeting of 50 church ministers and they set up the montgomery improvement association

Question 5

what was martin luther king jr’s involvement in the bus boycott?

Answer 5

MLK had only recently become pastor of dexter avenue church so he was not associated with any one black faction. he was also known to be highly educated, a good speaker and independent-minded. he was chosen to be head of the MIA

Question 6

what were the demands of the bus boycott?

Answer 6

at a church meeting, three objectives for the boycott were agreed upon:
1. more courteous treatment of black passengers
2. seating was on a first come, first served basis with whites filling the bus from the front and blacks from the back
3. the employment of some black bus drivers
the objectives of the boycott however did not include the demand for the desegregation of montgomery buses: they only wished to make it less harsh

Question 7

how was the bus boycott sustained over 12 months?

Answer 7

black people walked, shared lifts, cycled and hitch-hiked instead of getting the buses. as the boycott continued, blacks became more determined. thousands attended evening meetings in churches and the ministers played a crucial role in sustaining the boycott. the bus company suffered huge financial loses. when MLK’s house was bombed in jan 1956, thousands of blacks surrounded the house to protect king. king told them to put their weapons away - the courage and self discipline shown by king strengthened the resolve of the black boycotters and enhanced their determination to continue their action

Question 8

how did the NAACP support the action in june 1956?

Answer 8

the bombings and arrests of church leaders attracted huge publicity. with the support of thurgood marshall and the NAACP, the MIA agreed to challenge the segregation laws in a federal court. the court ruled that the bus company’s segregated transport was unconstitutional

Question 9

what were the positive outcomes of the bus boycott?

Answer 9

black solidarity remained firm in the face of intimidation and terror - this instilled huge confidence and pride in the black community and made black people more determined to continue their campaign. furthermore, the boycott was successful in eliciting a supreme court ruling in favour of black people - this showed montgomery’s black population that they could exploit their economic power (they made up most of the bus company’s users) and that organised, collective action could achieve advances in civil rights

Question 10

what is the SCLC?

Answer 10

the bus boycott also led to the formation of the southern christian leadership conference in january 1957. it was formed by king and other church ministers in order to exploit the power of black churches and mount sustained mass demonstrations against racial discrimination and segregation. several of the SCLC leaders helped to develop the philosophy of peaceful confrontation and non-violent action

Question 11

what were the negative outcomes of the bus boycott?

Answer 11

the SCLC achieved little in it’s first years. in montgomery itself, schools and other facilities remained segregated. after the boycott, there were further attacks on king’s house and four black churches were bombed

Question 12

what were the sit-ins?

Answer 12

the sit-ins began on 1 feb 1960 in woolworths in greensboro, north carolina. the four young men refused to leave the store all day, having sat in the white only area. the following day, more than 20 other students joined in. they adopted a passive resistance stance to the verbal and physical abuse they experienced. whites hit them and threw food and drinks over them and even stubbed out cigarettes on their bodies.
when arrested, the students followed a policy of ‘jail, no bail’ - refusing to pay bail so that the police would have to keep them in prison. even when the police reduced the bail, students wouldn’t pay so they had to be released as jails were overflowing.

Question 13

what was the woolworths company response to the sit-ins?

Answer 13

the woolworth company stated officially that it would maintain it’s segregated policy but the store was forced to close temporarily on 6 feb when more than 300 people became involved.
nationwide sales at woolworth stores dropped by more than one-third. seeing the financial benefits of this boycott, the woolworth management realised they would have to end their segregation policy. on 25 jul 1960, the desegregation process began when black employees were served first at the stores lunch counter.

Question 14

what is the SNCC?

Answer 14

one of the most significant results of the sit-ins as the formation of the student non-violent coordinating committee (SNCC) in apr 1960. it was formed by ella baker, as long serving civil rights campaigner. she encouraged students to take direct action against discrimination in voting, housing and jobs. baker urged the students to set up a completely independent group from the SCLC which was highly democratic, with no obvious or dominant leader emerging.

Question 15

what was the albany movement?

Answer 15

autumn 1961: SNCC and local activists led a broad attack on racial discrimination and desegregation in albany - they challenged segregation in transport, facilities, parks, hotels, restaurants, ect.
city authorities stood firm and refused to implement any change. the leader of the the movement invited MLK and the SCLC to albany. the campaign was reinvigorated by both the presence of king and enthusiastic meetings.

Question 16

what was the police involvement in the albany movement?

Answer 16

laurie pritchett (the police chief) outwitted protesters: he knew that violence, either by local whites or his police, would attract media attention and in turn, federal intervention. he trained officers to be non-violent to the demonstraters and hired jails in other parts of the country so that there was no limit to the numbers arrested. when king was arrested, pritchett made sure that he didn’t spend long in jail (someone ‘anonymous’ paid his bail)

Question 17

how did the albany movement end?

Answer 17

there was some federal government pressure on the authorities - they agreed to desegregation, so king and the SCLC left and the campaign petered out. no changes were actually made. if they had just focused on one thing to desegregate, rather than everything, maybe their campaign would be more successful.

Question 18

who was fred shuttlesworth?

Answer 18

in 1956, alabama banned the NAACP, so fred shuttlesworth established the alabama christian movement for human rights and worked closely with the SCLC. in retaliation, the klan burnt down his home and church, and the police infiltrated his organisation and tapped his phones.

Question 19

why was birmingham chosen for a campaign?

Answer 19

birmingham was a suitable target for the new campaign because of it’s history of segregation and racial violence, and the ground work had already been laid by shuttlesworth and his movement. the klan was known to be violent and ‘bull’ connor can be relied on to resort to physical force. the resulting brutality would attract widespread publicity and the federal government would be forced to intervene.

Question 20

what is project c?

Answer 20

king and his colleagues made project confrontation - they used a code name in case their phones had been tapped. they aimed to desegregate business, such as large retail stores, to force them to employ blacks and integrate their facilities for customers. the plan was for a peaceful march, from the baptist church to the city centre, to disrupt traffic and carry out a very public boycott of city centre stores.
the demonstrators were met by police with batons and dogs. this show of force attracted media attention, which in turn attracted more marchers, more violence and more publicity. many were arrested and then the state authorities secured a court injunction forbidding further protests.
king saw it as his duty as an american christian to obey a higher law as the evil of segregation was so great. he marched to the city centre, was arrested and put into solitary confinement.

Question 21

what is the letter from birmingham jail?

Answer 21

a group of white church ministers placed an advertisement in the birmingham newspaper where they critised project c. king responded, explaining his non-violent philosophy, saying he was not an outside agitator but a dutiful christian fighting injustice. he also warned that if peaceful demonstrators were dismissed, millions would turn to black nationalism.

Question 22

what was the children’s crusade?

Answer 22

there weren’t many more demonstrators willing to risk jail: an SCLC official called for a ‘childrens crusade’, for school children to take the place of their elders. in may, hundreds of school children gathered at the baptist church and they set off, marching. they were arrested and taken to jail.
their bravery impressed many people and inspired more adults to join the demonstration. police chief ‘bull’ connor resorted to the use of high pressure fire hoses, which knocked people over, and police dogs. pictures of these actions appeared on television and newspapers all around the world.
america’s image was severely damaged and the federal government was forced to act. senior federal officials were sent to initiate talks between king and birmingham businessmen. meanwhile, white extremists threw bombs into the house of king’s brother and the hotel where king himself was staying.

Question 23

what was the impact of the birmingham march?

Answer 23

in the summer of 1963, many cities were inspired by birmingham and had sit-ins and demonstrations of their own. in the next few months, 50 cities in the south agreed to desegregation to avoid the chaos of birmingham. some of the biggest demonstrations were in northern cities, like detroit and philadelphia. the government was met with a storm of criticism for not doing enough. there was also an upsurge in the support for civil rights and donations poured into the SCLC.

Question 24

what was kennedy’s response to the birmingham march?

Answer 24

as the public opinion increasingly called for federal intervention, kennedy faced mounting pressure. this pressure didn’t just originate in the USA: the secretary of state, dean rusk, said that white supremacy was the ‘single biggest burden that we carry on our backs in forieng relations’.
-> prime minister of uganda sent an open letter to kennedy in which he condemned the attacks on ‘our own kith and kin’
-> 11 june 1963, kennedy went on TV and said that civil rights was a ‘moral issue’ and admitted ‘it is time to act’. he sent a civil rights bill to congress which guaranteed equal access to public buildings, schools and jobs.

Question 25

how did civil rights leaders plan to support kennedy’s civil rights bill?

Answer 25

civil rights leaders knew the pressure on the federal government would have to be maintained if congress was to pass kennedy’s bill. they approached a. philip randolph with the aim of organising a march in order to show mass support for, and to put pressure on congress to pass, the civil rights bill. the year 1963 would be the centenary of lincoln’s emancipation proclamation and a march that ended with speeches from the steps of the lincoln memorial in washington would be highly symbolic.

Question 26

how did kennedy respond to the washington march plans?

Answer 26

at first, kennedy was opposed to the march: there was already much opposition to his bill in congress and kennedy felt his opponents might dig their heels in and attract more support if subjected to force. when he found out all the key leaders were determined to go ahead, the following agreements were made with the organisers:
1. on a wednesday, not a weekend
2. organisers would try to attract as many whites as possible
3. demonstrators should dress appropriately/conservatively
4. detailed programmes would outline the days events
in effect, the government converted the demonstration from a protest against federal inaction into a rally in favour of its own civil rights bill

Question 27

who was bayard rustin?

Answer 27

bayard rustin was an organising genius - he helped organise the montgomery buss boycott and later to set up the SCLC. hundreds of volunteers were recruited to act as marshalls and it was agreed with the authorities that white police would be stationed round the edges to deter any white supremacists

Question 28

who attended the washington march?

Answer 28

250,000 people attended the event. most were middle class and black, but a quarter were white and there was a clergy of all faiths. it was the biggest demonstration in US history. there was two hours of live music, mostly freedom songs sung by folk singers.
all the main civil rights leaders spoke. john lewis was asked to tone his speech down as it was leaked the day before and was very critical of the civil rights bill. MLK’s speech evoked the memory of lincoln and the promises of freedom and equality which where enshrined in the declaration of independence. king brought to the speech all the passion, charisma and electrifying oratory that were no hallmark.

Question 29

was the washington march a success?

Answer 29

most historians see the march as a resounding success. it was peaceful and it was celebratory. it was broadcast live for three hours on US television and was widely covered in many other countries. many americans saw for black and whites united, marching together in support of a cause they might not have understood, and that it was not threatening.
however, the march did not lead to a swift passing of the civil rights bill. many in congress were unmoved, while southern democrats were disappointed that kennedy had supported the march. less than three weeks after the march, a bomb was thrown into a church. it killed four young black girls at sunday school

Question 30

what was the council of federated organisations?

Answer 30

COFO was formed to coordinate the NAACP, SCLC, CORE, SNCC and the national urban leagure (NUL) to administer and carry out the newly funded voter education project (VEP). despite constant harassment, the effort was modestly successful in several southern cities, where aprox 500,000 african americans were registered to vote by 1964. mississippi was not a part of this success due to literacy tests, violence and intimidation.

Question 31

what was the freedom summer?

Answer 31

1964!! only 1% of 400,000 potential african american voters were registered in mississippi. COFO leaders decided to flood mississippi with volunteers to change the status quo. freedom summer was to combine voter education, registration and political activism as well as running freedom schools to teach literacy and civics to both adults and children.

Question 32

who would run the freedom summer?

Answer 32

it was to be run by middle and upper class white student volunteers from across the nation. a number of african american activists didn’t like this, reasoning that well-educated and mostly wealthy white americans working with african americans might further enrage segregationists.
if there was violence towards white people involved in freedom summer, the federal government would provide the protection that the white house claimed it was powerless to give. the press would give more attention to the deaths of white americans than black americans.

Question 33

what was the level of violence relating to freedom summer?

Answer 33

the police force of mississippi capital, jackson, were fully equipped to meet any disturbances, being heavily reinforced with extra shotguns and teargas (there was even a tank on standby).
in june, two white students and a black SNCC worker all disappeared, after they had investigated a church bombing. the trio were detained for a traffic violation, where the police informed the KKK that they would be freed that night. upon release, they were followed by three vehicles and subsequently disappeared. there was huge media attention and president johnson ordered a major investigation. the state of mississippi refused to prosecute anybody.
deputy sheriff cecil price had coordinated the murders - in 1957, price and 6 others were convicted on a lesser charge. this was still a key moment as a white jury had convicted white men with the death of a black man.
there was a high level of violence - many houses were bombed and 6 people were murdered. the majority of white student volunteers left mississippi at the end of the summer, however the african american people living there had to deal with the damage left behind.

Question 34

what was the mississippi freedom democratic party?

Answer 34

the formation of the MFDP was a real achievement, catapulting the racial issue into the midts of the 1964 presidential election campaign - an immense area for international publicity. the MFDP was a mechanism whereby black mississipians might get proper political representation, in contrast to the ‘lily-whites’ of the mainstream democratci party. 68 black delegates went to the national democractic party convention in atlantic city, NJ. they sought official recognitiion at the convention, presenting the assembly with two delegates claiming the same seats.

Question 35

how did people react to the MFDP?

Answer 35

television viewers across the US sent messages to their delegates urging support for the MFDP. the official democrats were alarmed by this and president johnson didn’t want to jeopadise his re-election by losing southern democrats to the republicans.
he made a compromise: MFDP representatives could speak, but not vote, and they could have two token seats in the mississippi delegation. all but four of the white mississippi democrat party members walked out in protest and the MFDP turned down the compromise, saying that two token seats won’t fix the issue.
many civil rights campaigners became increasingly unhappy with white liberal reformers like johnson, although the events at atlantic city did lead to racially segregated delegations being prohibited at future conventions.

Question 36

was the freedom summer a success?

Answer 36

the freedom summer had undermined the solidarity that had existed inn the civil rights movement in previous years. there was growing disparity between those who preferred non-violence and those who felt that peaceful protest was not necessarily the best means of getting full racial equality, which many feeling that a more radical approach was required.
only 1600 african americans, out of 17,000 who applied, were registered to vote during freedom summer - this was viewed as a failure by some, yet others saw it as a small but vital step.
the MFDP actions at atlantic city had ensured that there would never be a fully white delegation at a democratic convention.

Question 37

what is the background to the 1964 civil rights act?

Answer 37

JFK’s government had not proposed any civil rights legislation in the initial two years, choosing to focus on foreign affairs. however the increasing amount of demonstrations, including the media coverage of birmingham in 1963, began to turn the tide.
in june 1963, JFK gave a televised address where he proposed legislation to end discrimination. it remained unpopular in congress despite the march on washington and the birmingham bomb in sept 1963 where 4 young girls were killed.
however, follwoing JFKs’s assassination in nov 1963, johnson became determined to get the bill passed in JFK’s honour. the passage was not smooth - with many alterations and a 3 month filibuster by 19 southern senators.

Question 38

what were the terms of the 1964 civil rights act?

Answer 38

through the legislation, the government ended de jure segregation. it became law on 2 july 1964.
1. blacks ad other minorities could not be denied service based on the colour of their skin
2. racial, religious, ethnic and sexual discrimination by employers and labour unions was banned
3. the attorney general could not file lawsuits directly to speed up desegregation, mixed education and voting rights
4. the office of education had to assist with school desegregation
5. an equal employment opportunity was created with the authority to commence legal proceedings on behalf of workers with a grievance
6. there was to be no discrimination on any federally aided programmes
7. the commission on civil rights had greater powers
8. the inequality in voting requirements was outlawed

Question 39

who voted for the 1964 civil rights act?

Answer 39

HOR: 152 democrats (98 against), 138 republicans
senate: 73-27
it was mainly passed due to lobbying by LBJ

Question 40

what were the consequences of the 1964 civil rights act?

Answer 40

positive effects:
-> segregation and discrimination were now prohibited by law
-> in the deep south, almost 90% of schools had integrated by sep 1965
-> 15% to 35% of black men in middle class occupations from 1950 to 70
-> 62% to 36% of black men in lower class occupations from 1950 to 70

negative effects:
-> de facto segregation remained in urban, northern cities due to poor housing, menial jobs and inadequate schooling
-> signs of growing discontent in working class white people in the north
-> 1965: parts of the south resisted the law as a loophole existed allowing southern states to not register black people to vote

Question 41

what was the selma march?

Answer 41

despite the cr act of 1964, black americans were still facing difficulties in registering to vote, facing unnecessary hurdles. the SCLC decided to challenge this in one town - selma, alabama - where only 2% of the 15,000 black residents were registered to vote. trouble flared - a march from selma to montgomery set off on 7th march - but the marchers were savagely beaten by the police. after a 2nd aborted march on 9th march, LBJ agreed to new legislation on voting rights.

Question 42

what were the terms of the 1965 voting rights act?

Answer 42

the publicity arising from the actions of the SCLC in selma, and the brutality of the police had once again achieved success in furthering CR.
1. insisting on literacy tests and the ability to read or interpret material became illegal
2. demonstration of academic achievement as a requirement to vote was now illegal
3. the ability to pay poll taxes or furnish proof of moral character as was of assessing whether anyone was fit or unfit to vote were outlawed
4. american citizenship and an individual’s name on an official electoral list were the only voting requirements

Question 43

what were the impacts of the 1965 voting rights act?

Answer 43

short term:
-> 60% of selma’s black population reigstered to vote within a month of the act becoming law
-> between 1964-67, the average percent of black registration in the deep south rose from 35% to 65%
-> 9 out of 13 southern states had more than 50% of african americans registered to vote by 1967

long term:
-> more african americans were elected into public office, which demonstrated the ability of blacks to have responsibility

Question 44

what were the watts riots?

Answer 44

11 aug 1965: marquette dye arrested for suspicion of drunk driving
-> a crowd gathered to protest the arrest: residents stoned cars and beat white people who entered the area, which triggered looting, arson and further assaults
-> a curfew was set with 15K police and national guard patrolling an 80km radius. 5 days in and 34 people had died, more than 1000 injured and 4000 arrested. there was $40 million worth of damage
MLK disapproved of the riots but claimed they began because of the environment (poor housing & jobs, social isolation, growing despair), rather than racism. he offered to act as an intermediary between local people & and government officials.
after the riots, LBJ introduced a federal antipoverty programme in LA on suggestion of king and built the MLK hospital. in 1966, black unemployment in LA exceeded 1930s levels during the depression. there was inadequate schooling for blacks, plus poor public transport to carry them to city suburbs where new industries were developing.

Question 45

what was the impact of television on civil rights?

Answer 45

-> government shortcomings and social failures were exposed
-> the sight of poverty, social unrest and racial discrimination were difficult to see when america claimed it was the ‘land of the free’