P&P 6-10 Flashcards
Types of airstream mechanism
- pulmonic (egressive, ingressive)
- glottalic (ejectives, implosives)
- velaric (clicks - only ingressive)
Glottal airstream
can be egressive (ejective) or ingressive (implosive) - movement of glottis up or down changes pressure in oral cavity - pushes air out or causes air to be sucked in.
Ejective
vocal folds together and moving upward
Implosive
closed vocal folds moving down, usually nearly closed moving down with regular vibrations or creaky voice (can have voiceless diacritic)
Steps of glottal egressive velar stop k’ e.g. occasionally when saying words like “bike”
- velar closure and glottis closure happen same time
- closed glottis is raised
- body of air in pharynx is compressed
- back of tongue is lowered, releasing compressed air,
- glottal closure is released
Steps of bilabial implosive e.g. in Sindhi
- closure of lips
- downward movement of vibrating glottis (continues to flow air - leaky)
- little change in pressure of oral tract
- lips come apart
Steps for dental click
- velar closure and front closure
- body of tongue moves down while other closures maintained, decreasing pressure in front
- tongue tip lowered so air rushes in
- velar closure released
4 states of the glottis
- voiced
- voicelessness
- murmur
- creaky voice
- whisper
Voiceless phonation
apart not vibrating - wide opening of glottis
Voice (modal)
normal vocal vibration along most of the length of the glottis
Murmur (breathy voice)
Normal cord vibration accompanied by continuous turbulent airflow - vibrating while never fully together
Creaky
Vocal folds held tightly together (posterior) but vibrating anteriorly - low frequency of vibration
Whisper
greater constriction than voicelessness - adapting the vocal cords while maintaining the opening of the glottis
Falsetto
vocal cords are stretch longitudinally so they become thin in cross-section
Aspiration (glottis action)
vocal folds apart during release of an articulation
Types of stops in Hindi
- Voiceless unaspirated [p]
- voiceless aspirated [pʰ]
- voiced [b]
- breathy voiced [bʱ]
Breathy voiced
occasionally called aspirated - really means there is a period of breathy voicing or murmur before the regular voicing starts
Other types of sounds not in English
- bilabial fricatives
- linguo-labials (tongue touches upper lip)
- labiodental stops
- labiodental nasal (except allophonic)
- dental stop (except allophonic)
- retroflex stops
- alveolo palatal
- palatal voiceless e.g. ich bin nicht or nasals e.g. se/ɲ/or (spanish)
- velar fricatives [x]
- uvular e.g. French voiced uvular fricative
- pharyngeal fricatives
- labial velar stops/nasals
Labiodental nasals in English
[ɱ] may occur where /m/ before /f/ – as in emphasis or symphony
palato-alveolar
target on upper surface of the mouth is about the same as retroflex (margin of alveolar and palate) but tongue is domed, not hollowed (sh)
apical vs laminal
tip of the tongue (am)
blade (lam)
alveolo-palatals
Polish and Chinese fricatives similar to sh, but with raising of the front of the tongue
sibilant sounds
fricatives s, z, sh, sz - more acoustic energy (loudness) than others
trills
trill - [r]
tap vs flap
both caused by single contraction so one articulator thrown against another
tap - tip of tongue contacts dental/alveolar
flap - tip of tongue retroflex then strikes roof in post-alveolar region
sufficient perceptual separation
force acting on a language so that sounds are kept acoustically distinct to make it easier for listeners to distinguish
features of vowel quality
- height (F1 freq)
- backness (F2 and F1)
- rhotacisation
- rounding
- ATR - width of pharynx
- nasalisation
secondary articulation
gesture with a lesser degree of closure occurring at roughly the same time as the primary gesture e.g. palatalisation, velarisation, pharyngealisation, labialisation
palatalisation vs velarisation
raising of front of tongue or back e.g. /k/ey or dark l
pharyngealisation
retracting the root of the tongue e.g. in dark l
labialisation
rounding of the lips in e.g. coo
syllabification
the process of breaking words into syllables
σ (sigma sign)
Used to show syllable
What parts need to be in a syllable
Must have a nucleus. Onset and coda are optional - can have more than one onset or coda
Nucleus
highest sonority part of the syllable - almost always the vowel
Phonotactic constraints
language-specific rules that tell you what sequences of consonants are allowed
Phonotactic principles (4)
- Maximal onset principle
- Sonority sequencing principle
- stressed syllables are heavy
- onset, coda, and
rime structure rules
Maximal onset principle
Intervocalic consonants (i.e. V_V) are maximally assigned to the onset. - if in doubt, give to an onset as long as allowed - therefore CV is more universal syllable than VC
Evidence for maximal onset principle
- Children say CV first e.g. “ma”
- More options for onsets
- codas less stable (e.g. may lose - fishing –> fishin’)
What is the longest onset possible ?(English)
s + consonant + approximant
Onset structures
- pre-initial (only s)
- initial (any)
- post-initial (sonorants)
Coda structures
- pre-final (sonorants or s)
- final (any)
- post-final (coronals - t, s, sths)
Rime structures (nucleus and coda)
2μ vowel N can have C with max 1 non-coronal consonant (therefore cannot have e.g. hailp, but haisp or help legal)
Sonority sequencing principle
Syllable structure based on sonority: Nucleus constitutes sonority peak followed by consonant sequence with progressively decreasing sonority values (Therefore should look like a 1-side or 2-side pyramid with nucleus at the top, no ticks)
Sonority scale
Scale indicating sonority values
Order of sonority in the sonority scale
- Vowels (low - mid - high)
- semi-vowels (w, j)
- approximants
- nasals
- obstruents (fricatives then affricates then stops) (voiced - voiceless)
Exception to the sonority sequencing principle
the /s/ sound is allowed to violate the sonority sequencing principle e.g. where onset maximal principle in play e.g. /ekstra/ (extra)
Sonorants
natural class that may be a nucleus: vowels, semivowels, approximants and nasals e.g. bottle, button
Open vs Closed syllables
closed (has coda)
open (no coda)
Syllable weight
determined by how many morae a syllable has (μ)
Mora values of syllable components
Onset - perhaps 0
Coda - 1μ
Short vowel - 1 μ
Diphthong - 2 μ
Heavy syllable
One that has branching in the nucleus (i.e. diphthong, long) or in the rime (i.e. nucleus + coda) – therefore should have 2μ (Note BAO defines as >1 segment in rime)
Super-heavy syllable
has branching in nucleus and rime, so should have 3μ
Stress and weight
We assume that all stressed syllables are heavy - as such, if we see a light syllable that is stressed - we can attach the following consonant to it and form a coda e.g. phonology, swallow to form both
geminates
long consonants or vowels that can be analysed as doubles e.g. tsukatte - only happen across word boundaries in English or with two morphemes e.g. guileless
ambisyllabic
quality of consonant when attached to both coda of preceding and onset of following syllables
Acoustic properties of stress
- energy - louder
- duration - longer
- pitch - higher
Tone systems
- level tones (high and low)
- Contour tone (rising and falling)
Tone sandhi
changes of tone due to influence of one tone on another e.g. in ni3 hao3
Declination
In most languages, general downward trend of pitch over a syntactic unit e.g. sentence
Possible timing of languages
- Mora-timing (e.g. Japanese)
- Syllable-timing (Romance languages e.g. spanish)
- stressed time (e.g. E) – timing indicated by PVI
Isochrony
regular timing of units of time e.g. mora
PVI
index measuring differences between vowel durations - if high PVI then big difference but if all vowels equal then close to 0
Is stress in English phonemic?
Yes, it can be in cases e.g. abstract (noun vs verb)
Prosodic hierarchy and word stress
prosodic word level > foot > syllable > mora. (word stress takes place at prosodic word level and feet)
Foot
timing unit in English - a stretch of phonetic material - may begin at the onset of a stressed syllable and ends at the onset of the next stressed syllable
Metrical parameters
- Foot type: bounded or unbounded
- Headedness: L/R
- Directionality: L-R?
- extrametricality
Foot type: bounded vs unbounded
bounded feet can contain a maximum of two (binary) or three (ternary) syllables. An unbounded foot can contain an indefinite number of syllables.
Foot headedness: where is S?
- trochaic (sw)
- iambic (ws)
- dactyl (sww)
- anapest (wws)
- amphibrach (wsw)
dactyl headedness
S W W - stupidly, marinate, broccoli
anapaest headedness
W W S - unaware, in the air, unconcerned, unafraid
amphibrach headedness
W S W - relation
Trochee typology (what kind of syllable patterns permitted)
H, HL, LL (no LH or HH as H can be lone foot)
Iambic typology (kind of syllable patterns permitted)
H, LH, LL (no HL or HH)
Directionality of feet
When determining feet, do we use right-to left or left-to-right construction?
Extrametricality
A particular segment or prosodic unit of a word may be ignored for the purposes of determining the stress structure of the word. (kept out of the feet - e.g. last syllable of nouns and last consonant of adjectives and verbs)
Word stress rule: penultimate or antepenultimate
At word level, when determining stress - if penultimate syllable is heavy, stress it e.g. potato. If not, stress syllable before e.g. America
ENGLISH word procedure for metricality
- apply extrametricality rule
- mark each syllable with *
- on syllable level, construct L-headed feet from R-L
- On level of foot, construct unbounded, R-headed constituent
Other stress rules
- Nuclear stress rule - (stress B in AB)
- If B right-branching, stress B, otherwise stress A ([AB]C - greenhouse effect, A[BC] - office filing cabinet
Stress shift
Shift of stress in comparison to a default position commonly identified as the position of stress in isolated words e.g. thirtEEN –> THIRteen MEN
Types of stress shift
- stress retraction
- iambic reversal
- trochaic reversal
Stress retraction
leftward shift of stress in adjectival compounds (weak strong), etc. e.g. thirTEEN - THIRteen MEN – resolution of stress clash (two primary stresses adjacent). Note the prominence of the second syllable is crucial
Stress clash
stress will be shifted in cases where two prominent or primary stresses occur too close to each other i.e. not separated by a stressed syllable of lesser degree of prominence.
Iambic reversal
leftward shift of stress compared to default iamb - in this case, unlike stress retraction it is optional (not obligatory) - can be used as a rhetorical device - usually
