Overview of China’s Foreign Relations

Question 1

Define Human Rights according to China’s use of the term.

Answer 1

1. Definition of Human Rights: Human rights are universal rights that inherently belong to all individuals, regardless of factors like race, nationality, religion, or any other status. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted in 1948, serves as a global standard for these rights.
2. China’s Perspective on Human Rights: China has a distinct perspective on human rights, influenced by its historical and national conditions. It emphasizes the prioritization of stability, harmony, subsistence, and economic development over civil and political rights. China has ratified certain human rights conventions but maintains that the “right to subsistence” and the right to development are paramount.
3. Shift in China’s Approach to Human Rights: Over the years, China’s approach to international human rights has evolved. Initially defensive, it has become more proactive. China seeks to challenge what it perceives as Western dominance in the human rights discourse and advocates for a new international human rights governance framework based on state cooperation rather than individual rights and accountability. This shift is reflected in concepts like “a community of shared destiny for mankind” and efforts to promote mutually beneficial cooperation in human rights.

Question 2

Define Peace in accordance with China’s use of the term.

Answer 2

1. The Chinese Narrative of Peace: The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), led by Xi Jinping, asserts that the love for peace is inherent in the Chinese people’s DNA. This narrative portrays Chinese individuals as naturally harmonious, non-violent, and benevolent, aligning with the Party’s belief in its moral correctness. The CCP emphasizes that their defense policy is purely defensive, and that China’s pursuit of peace is deeply rooted in Chinese character, tradition, and history.
2. Peace as Defined by the CCP: The CCP’s concept of peace encompasses the absence of war, non-state sanctioned hostility, and violence. It also extends to include social stability, harmony, development, cooperation, and mutual benefit. Social stability, seen as crucial to the CCP’s legitimacy, is closely linked to their notion of peace. The Party’s definition of “preserving peace” includes the suppression of peaceful protest movements and potential sources of social unrest.
3. Taiwan and the Notion of Peaceful Unification: The term “peaceful unification” is used by the CCP to refer to the incorporation of Taiwan into the People’s Republic of China through non-military means. This euphemism implies that unification could also occur through military intervention if the current status quo changes. China has made it clear that it is prepared for armed conflict if Taiwan takes steps towards formal independence. The CCP asserts that its defense policy poses no military threat to any other country, but this stance hinges on how they define an “attack».

Question 3

Define the term Sovereignty in the way that the CCP and China may use it.

Answer 3

1. China’s Concept of State Sovereignty: China defines state sovereignty as the exclusive right of states to govern within their own territory. In the context of China, it is understood as absolute and perpetual state power, with governance by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It is closely tied to China’s principle of mutual non-interference in domestic affairs, as outlined in the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence (1954). China considers state sovereignty as a non-negotiable “national core interest”, emphasizing the CCP’s continued monopoly on power.
2. Historical Territorial Claims and Sovereignty: China bases its concept of state sovereignty on selective historical territorial claims. For example, it claims sovereignty over Taiwan dating back to the Qing empire (1644-1911). China argues for territorial claims in the South China Sea, asserting historical jurisdiction during specific periods. Despite international rulings against some of these claims, China maintains its position.
3. Influence of Sovereignty on Policy Areas: China’s adherence to Westphalian norms of sovereignty shapes its stance on international human rights issues. It argues that a country’s level of development, culture, and values must be considered, limiting international human rights monitoring and enforcement. China views humanitarian intervention with suspicion, seeing it as a potential pretext for Western interference in domestic affairs and a threat to sovereignty. The concept of “cyber sovereignty” refers to China’s efforts to control information flow on the internet for social stability and regime legitimacy, while asserting a leading role in global cyberspace governance. The CCP asserts jurisdiction over cultural and religious matters outside its borders, exemplified by attempts to influence exhibitions and religious appointments in other countries. For instance, it claims authority over Tibetan Buddhism and the appointment of the next Dalai Lama.

Question 4

What historical characteristics shaped China’s foreign relations ?

Answer 4

It is a state that was beaten down by foreign intervention.

The state has a rebuilding job to do, therefore, Zhou Enlai built up a diplomatic core, he did not want to work with diplomats that been affiliated with the nationalists.

Question 5

What is the first historical turning point of Chinese foreign relations ?

Answer 5

Mao’s revolution and state building. Because his party was successful, China supported revolutions across Asia, like that of the Khmer Rouge, in Korea, etc.

Question 6

What is the second historical turning point of Chinese foreign relations ?

Answer 6

The sino-soviet split (1956-1960) - their breakdown of relation culminated in a rivalry. The Western World believed ideology would be enough to bind them together, which was incorrect.

Relations went south because:

1. Mao did not like being perceived as inferior to the soviets.
2. Khrouchtchev’s goal was a peaceful coexistence with the West, which Mao did not want.
3. Mao wanted to conserve his personality cult, whereas the USSR had turned away from that.

Following this split, Moscow wants to maintain superior relations with the rest of the world, meaning that China’s foreign relations become more difficult.

Question 7

What is the third historical turning point of Chinese foreign relations ?

Answer 7

The normalization of relations between US and China in the 1970s.

They work towards it, but some issue of recognition remain, especially concerning Taiwan : used to be considered as the Republic of China, now people see it as part of the People’s Republic of China.

Question 8

What is the fourth historical turning point of Chinese foreign relations ?

Answer 8

Deng Xiaoping’s foreign investment and opening of economic markets.

Built strong economies within China.

The party was still involved, though not leading the initiatives, meaning they would also become externally powerful.

Question 9

What is the first enduring issue concerning China’s foreign relations according to China ?

Answer 9

Internal weakness, instability and chaos.

These three things can lead to foreign interference (history with Japan).

They mitigate this threat by conserving a strong central leadership.

Question 10

What is the second enduring issue concerning China’s foreign relations according to China ?

Answer 10

Their geographical location.

Exposure, pressure and potential invasion in all directions and along every border. (Korea, Tibet, Russia, Manchouria)

Though under Deng Xiaoping, the issues of borders were mostly settled.

Question 11

What is the third enduring issue concerning China’s foreign relations according to China ?

Answer 11

Its economies.

If they are poor, they are weak. If they are weak, they can be pushed around.

In their eyes, the acquire stability through money.

Opening up economically is therefore also synonym of potential vulnerability.

Question 12

How does China see itself in a foreign relations context ?

Answer 12

It depends on the situations.

Sometimes, it is a great power (questions of security, or positions within Asia).

Sometimes, it is a developing state (questions of climate change).

Sometimes, it is both at the sam time (during the G77 for example).

Question 13

What are China’s 5 principles of peaceful coexistence ?

Answer 13

1. Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity - no room to question anything (not even human rights abuses, genocide, etc.)
2. Non-agression - peace is synonym of unity.

There should be a peaceful rise in power (signal to neighbours it wants more power but is not a military threat - if neighbours are alarmed they may join the US and form an alliance against China)

3. Non-intervention in internal affairs - avoid disturbances that would threaten the party’s rule.
4. Defend territorial integrity - this applies to Xinjiang, Tibet, Honk Kong, Taiwan, maritime security and the 9 dash line.
5. Avoid having others see China as threatening or threatened.

Question 14

How have China’s foreign relation evolved under Xi Jinping ?

Answer 14

1. Sees the international community as a “community with a shared destiny for mankind”
2. Pushes China’s principles to the front of the international community.
3. Major Challenge to the International Scene : the war in Ukraine - China’s neutrality leans toward a support of Russia.

Their trade has increased since the West has turned away from the West.

Both leaders are good friends. They share the belief that The US is the adversary.

By being neutral, they keep Russia on their side without opposing the rest of the international community.