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Psychology > Outcome 3 - Learning And Memory > Flashcards

Outcome 3 - Learning And Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Differences between neurotransmitters and neurohormones

A

Neurotransmitters are chemicals released by the presynaptic neuron and are released directly into the synapse. They can only effect other Neurons if the they are linked via a synapse. Carry messages short distances (from pre to post synaptic neuron) the effect is quick,
Neurohormones are released by a pre synaptic neuron, and directly into the bloodstream. Carey messages throughout the body, often to distant sites (organs) travel further than hormones. The effect that they produce is not as fast as neurotransmitters

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2
Q

Synaptic plasticity

A

Describes the changes that occur to synapse, it can lead to an increase or decrease in activity. It is when the number of receptor sites on the post synaptic neuron changes, and increase or decrease in the amount of neurotransmitter in the per synaptic neuron or other structural changes. This process is involved in LTP and LTD, providing a flexible functioning nervous system . (Learning and memory in the hippocampus)

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3
Q

Learning

A

Relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience

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4
Q

Memory

A

An active information system the receives, organises, stores and recovers information when we need it

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5
Q

Simple systems approach

A

Using simplistic organisms to study the brain, an example of this is kandels experiment using aplysia (sea slugs). Which has simple neural circuits and any behavioural changes as a result of learning can be examined neuron by neurone

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6
Q

Kandels experiment

A

Physiological basis of memory - memory formation of neurons.
Using aplysia which have simple nervous systems and a small number of large and pigmented nerve cells.
By noting the changes in the levels of neurotransmitters released at the synapse he concluded that memory formation depends on neuronal activity. Increase of neurotransmitters = more efficient transmissions = more efficient neural circuits/ LTP

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7
Q

Alcohols effect on learning

A

Disrupts neurotransmitter levels (serotonin) = trouble remembering information

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8
Q

Synaptogenisis

A

Neurons developing new connections and forming new synapses or existing pathways are strengthened.
Info passes from neuron to neuron, if this happens repeatedly learning occurs.
Dendrites and axons project out and link with a target cell or form a synapse.
It also includes the pruning away of unused or unnecessary neurons

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9
Q

When does synaptogenesis occur

A

2 months before birth to 2 years rapidly and in puberty

Throughout a healthy persons lifespan

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10
Q

Hebb principals

A

Use it or loose it

  • use of a function increases neural structure while disuse decreases it
  • those that fire together are activated together wire together and in doing so form a synapse
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11
Q

Cerebellum

A

Brain structure involved in the memory of learnt skills and actions

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12
Q

Enriched vs deprived environments

A

Enriched environments
- greater synapse development, more dendrites (thicker cortices)
Than rats raised in deprived environments

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13
Q

Neural plasticity and in what what ways does it occur

A

Umbrella term used to describe the ability of the brain and nervous system to adapt to changing conditions, reorganise neural pathways, repair damaged ones or create new pathways.

  • modifying the strength or efficiency or effectiveness of synaptic transmissions of excising synaptic connections
  • producing growth of new synaptic connections or pruning away of exisiting ones
  • modulating the excitability properties of individual neurons.
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14
Q

Factors that effect plasticity

A

Genetic factors
- specific traits and characteristics, encoded in our genes that we inherit from our parents

Environmental factors
- the amount of simulation our nervous system receives

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15
Q

Excitatory or inhibitory

A

Glutamate
- excitatory
GABA
- inhibitory

Depends on the type of neurotransmitter released by the presynaptic neuron and the ion channel receptors on the post synaptic neuron they interact with

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16
Q

What is LTP

A

Long term potentiation
A form of neural plasticity that is dependant on the activity between two neurons. That lead to an increase in the efficacy of synaptic transmission. Long lasting strengthening of two synaptic transmissions between neurons making them more likely to fire when subjected to a smaller amount of energy. Changes to the effectiveness of synaptic transmission

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17
Q

Where does LTP take place in the brain

A

In the temporal lobes, particularly in the hippocampus. (Memory consolidation) in the dendate gyrus.

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18
Q

Role of LTP on the post synaptic neuron

A

Na ions enter cell depolarising the pre synaptic neuron, causing a positive charge which simulates an action potential
This causes ca channels to open, which causes a chain of events causing vesicles to release neurotransmitters across the synapse

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19
Q

What are two important receptors involved in LTP and where are they found

A

On the post synaptic neuron

AMPA and NMDA

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20
Q

LTP on post synaptic neuron

A

Glutamate binds to AMPA receptors
Na ions pass through depolarising the cell
Causing NMDA receptors to be opened ( due to na ions forcing mg ions blocking the NMDA receptors to leave cell)
Ca enters NMDA receptors and binds to kinase (enzyme)
Kinase produces a phosphate group which binds to the AMPA increasing the sensitivity of the cell

At first this process requires a large and intense signal or large release of glutamate, but as learning occurs this can be achieved by a smaller signal or amount of glutamate to simulate post synaptic neuron

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21
Q

Hippocampus

A

Involved in memory consolidation

Individuals with damages hippocampus lose the ability to learn and remember new information

22
Q

LTD

A

Long term depression
Efficiency between two neurons is reduced
Weaker signal or release of glutamate less ca ions entering, less binding to kinase which results in less AMPA receptors on the post synaptic neuron. Reduced action potential is produced

Involved in forgetting , used to help weaken and prune existing synapses that are not simulated, by removing unused or incessant synapse the brain becomes more efficient, there for so does learning and memory process
Resources are distributed to healthy cells so energy is used more effectively

Occurs in the hippocampus

23
Q

Compare LTP and LTD

A

Ltp
Synapses are strengthened when AMPA receptors are increased in number and efficiency allowing more calcium to enter the cell increasing the neurons excitatory response
In graded glutamate production and release
Involved in memory and learning as neurons become more efficient in transmitting info
Ltd
Synapses are weakened, AMPA receptors are decreased reducing the amount of calcium entering the cell, weakening the response
Decrease in glutamate production and release at pre synaptic neuron
Involved in memory and learning as neurons become less efficient at transmitting messages and synaptic pruning takes place

24
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

A chemical messenger synthesised within a presynaptic neuron and is transmitted across a synapse

25
Q

Hormones

A

Are produced by the endocrine system, produced in the glands and secreted directly into the bloodstream to act on distant sites

26
Q

Neurohormones

A

A chemicals synthesised in the neuron and are directly secreted into the blood stream

27
Q

Differences between neurohormones and neurotransmitters

A

Neurotransmitters
- chemicals released by pre synaptic neuron directly into a synapse
It can only affect neurons that are linked directly via a synapse
That messages for pre to post synaptic neuron
Travel short distances
Effect is quick

Neurohormones
- chemicals released by ore synaptic neuron and directly into the blood stream
Carry messages throughout the body so they can affect target cells in specific organs at distant sites
Can travel longer distances than neurotransmitters
Effect is not as quick as neurotransmitters

28
Q

Synaptic plasticity

A

Changes that occur at the synapse which can lead to an increase or decrease in activity between neurons, two or more
Changes to receptors
Amount of neurotransmitters structural changes

Basis of learning and memory allowing for a flexible functioning nervous system. Includes LTP and LTD

29
Q

Role of glutamate

A

Excitatory neurotransmitter
Role in LTP excites neurons in the brain.
Involved in neural plasticity and in learning g and memory
Acts on certain receptors AMPA receptors and increases the sensitivity of the next neuron making it more likely to fire an action potential
Role in LTD are reduced glutamate causes degenerated neurons

30
Q

Role of adrenaline

A

In the consolidation of emotionally arousing experiences

Emotionally arousing experience is perceived by brain. The hypothalamus sends a signal that activates sympathetic nervous system, which activated adrenal glands. Secreted adrenaline and noradrenaline

Influences the brains functions by activating adrenorecptors, (receptors in the vagus nerves that run around the brain) which project off the brain stem and are activated by adrenaline. The brain stem then activated the release of noradrenaline that activates the amygdala and produces the emotional content of memories

31
Q

Adrenaline

A

Also known as epinephrine is a horizons secreted from the adrenal glands that sit on top on the kidneys. It is re,eased directly into the blood stream
Increases heart rate,BP, dilates pupils, expands air and lung passageways
Main role is to provide energy to muscles when aroused
It is both a neurohormone and a neurotransmitter
It enhances our attention

32
Q

Stimulus

A

Any object or event that produces a response

33
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A form of learning where two normally unrelated stimuli are reappeared linked so that an existing reflex response is elicited by a new stimuli

Also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning

34
Q

Three phase model of classic conditioning

A

First phase
- a response to a stimulus that has not yet been conditioned. An innate response
UCS = UCR
NS causes no response
Second phase
Development of an association between neutral stimulus and UCS
NS become CS
Third phase
CS produces CR as a result of its association with the UCS
The CS consistently producing a CR to a previously NS without it being paired with the stimulus that innately produces the response

35
Q

Pavlov’s research

A

Experiment with salivation

Simple type of learning that was based on repetitive association of different stimuli, giving us classical conditioning

36
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A learning process in which the likely hold of a behaviour being repeated is determined by the consequences of that behaviour
Instrumental learning
ABC conditioning

37
Q

ABC of operant conditioning

A

A antecedent
Is the stimulus that comes before the response in operant conditioning
B behaviour
Is the response to a stimulus the organism makes because on the antecedent
It is voluntary
C consequence
Follows behaviour and may result in either pleasant or unpleasant circumstances, this influences the likelyhood of the behaviour being repeated

38
Q

Skinners experiment

A

Is a form of operant conditioning

Skinner box -operant conditioning in animals

39
Q

Reinforcement- operant conditioning

A

Positive and negative reinforcement
Positive
When desirable of pleasant event follows a response and strengthened the likelihood of the response reoccurring
Negative
When an unpleasant stimulus is removed reduced or prevent and creates a positive consequence. Strengthening the likelihood that the response reoccurs

40
Q

Punishment operant conditioning

A

Is an unpleasant consequence that reduces the likelihood hold of the behaviour reoccurring,because of the introduction of an unpleasant stimulus

41
Q

Response cost

A

A form of punishment
When a reinforcer or positive stare of affairs is removed following a response, something desirable being removed, decreasing the likelihood that the response reoccurs

42
Q

Variables affecting punishment

A

Timing of the response ( best immediately afterward)
Constituency of the response
Must be appropriate deterrent

43
Q

Limitations of punishment

A

As a learning technique it does not indicate what the right response is.
Emotional response trauma resentment ect
Aggravating factor or frustration

44
Q

Stimulus generalisation

A

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the stimuli conditioned that proceeds reinforcement

45
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

The ability to differentiate between stimuli that may be similar to conditioned stimuli that signal reinforcement and non reinforcement

46
Q

Extinction

A

When the learnt response gradually decreases in strength or rats of response after reinforcement stops

47
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

The recovery of a previously reinforced response after a period of apparent extinction

48
Q

Observational learning

A

When learning occurs by watching (observing) others and noting the consequences of their actions, then imitating or not their behaviour based on the consequences
It is a form of social learning
It can happen subconsciously

Learning occurs by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences of those behaviours
Learning can occur without their being an immediate change in behaviour (latent)
Cognition plays a role in observational learning because the learner has expectations of further reinforcements or punishments, influencing if the learnt behaviour will be demonstrated
Observational learning is a link between classical and operant conditioning (behaviourist theories) and cognitive learning theory’s.

49
Q

To be successful observational learning

A

Model must seem to be rewarded for the behaviour displayed, this makes it more likely that the behaviour will be copied than models who are punished
Model must be appropriate for the learner (age)
Learning can occur in real life in flic or television

50
Q

Elements of observational learning

A 
Attention 
Retention 
Reproduction 
Motivation  
Reinforcement
51
Q

Observational learning experiments

A

Banduras bobo doll experiments
Increased behaviour she model is rewarded
Decresed when punishes

52
Q

Little Albert experiment

A

Classical conditioning
Conditioned fear emotional respiratory se to white rats with loud noises causing a reflective emotional response in the child
Result was generalised to other stimuli

Ethical considerations breached 
Do no harm 
Withdrawl rights 
Informed consent 
Debriefing 
Confidentiality

Psychology (3 decks)

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