OT

Question 1

Scientific Management & Taylorism (5 Principles)

Answer 1

1) Shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager.
2) Use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing work.
3) Select the best person for the job thus designed.
4) Train the worker to do the work efficiently.
5) Monitor worker performance to ensure that the appropriate work procedures are followed and appropriate results are achieved.

Question 2

Matrix structure

Answer 2

Two structures and sets of managers

• • Managers on functional side are responsible for allocating specialists to projects, helping them maintain skills and acquire new ones
• • Managers on project side are responsible for overseeing specific projects, planning, and coordinating work
• Greatest difficulty is in managing the conflict from dual lines of authority, but there is the ability to maximize value of specialists because can be included on a wide variety of projects

Question 3

Agency Theory

Answer 3

The central premise of agency theory is that managers as agents of shareholders (principals) may engage in self-serving behavior that can be inconsistent with the shareholders’ wealth maximization principle (Shleifer & Vishny, 1997)

Question 4

Autopoiesis

Answer 4

refers to a system capable of producing and maintaining itself by creating its own parts
Capacity for self-renewal

Autopoiesis defines life as “circularly organized” or “operationally closed” complex dissipative entities with the autonomous capacity to self-produce components they need for life and able to observe themselves to apply self-regulating feedback in the face of perturbations that might otherwise cause them to disintegrate

Question 5

Joan Woodward

Answer 5

• showed spools of classic management theory not always right to follow, different tech pose different demands must be met through appropriate structure, suggested bureaucratic mechanistic or appropriate for firms employing mass production tech but firms with unit, small-batch, or process systems of production needed a different approach

Question 6

Population ecology (environmental level analysis)

Answer 6

• This theory and resource dependence theory assume that environment has power over the org because of the dependency. But population ecology focuses mainly on the environment.
• It derives from Charles Darwin’s principles of evolution (variation, selection, and retention). Population in this case is organizations.
  - Variation - creates diversity (new organizations that come into the pool)
  - Selection - only organizations that fit well in the ecology survive and other organizations may take a flight and try to find another ecology (find other resources)
  - Retention - when there are some changes occur, organizations in the ecology need to adapt (this could result in merger and acquisition)

Question 7

Institutional theory

Answer 7

theory on the deeper and more resilient aspects of social structure

-institutional theory can explain how colleges and universities come to resemble each other even when the organizations under comparison are notably different. Old institutional theory held that institutional influence could be understood through the data point of organizational behavior. New institutional theorists explored the ways that organizations are shaped by, and operate with, competitive and cooperative exchanges with other organizations and institutions. Neo-institutional theorists returned to the isomorphic and homogenizing ideas of old institutional theory to posit that organizations are embedded in wider social and political environments that shape practices and structures.

Question 8

Contingency Theory

Answer 8

Contingency Theory: Adapting Organization to Environment

a. in a nutshell main ideas underlining this approach:
i. “organizations are open systems that need careful management to satisfy and balance internal needs and to adapt to environmental circumstances”
ii. “there is no one best way of organizing. The appropriate form depends on the kind of task for environment with which one is dealing”
iii. “management must be concerned, above all else, with achieving alignments and ‘good fits’”
iv. “different approaches to management may be necessary to perform different tasks within the same organization”
v. “different types or ‘species’ of organizations are needed in different types of environments”

Question 9

Modernism

Answer 9

objective truth

Modernists believe that by finding relationships between the organization’s structure and its performance, a recipe for an efficient and effective organizational structure can be found. This theory shows that not all organizations are the same, due to differing environments and other factors

Question 10

Chaos theory

Answer 10

can likely essentially be boiled down to - small changes can reverberate to large changes

Question 11

Von Bertalanffy

Answer 11

proposed open systems theory to explain life phenomena. Open systems, living organisms are examples of such systems, do not follow the second law of classical thermodynamics. They are characterized by negative entropy. This property explains organismic growth, differentiation and increasing complexity.

Question 12

Post-modernism

Answer 12

A relativistic approach
Abandons notions of universal criteria for truth and excellence: knowledge is fundamentally fragmented
Views questions of right/wrong, good/bad as social constructions that are usefully deconstructed
Challenge modernist quest for objective truth and unifying views

• Offers critique and other forms of appreciation
• Primary phenomena of interest — modern management practices
• Methods: reframing the concepts and theories of modernism by adopting a critical or aesthetic stance toward them
• Offer appreciation (as an alternative to explanation and understanding), provoke reflexivity and greater awareness of the moral and ethical implications of managing, organizing, and theorizing from any perspective

Question 13

Corporate governance

Answer 13

Objective – maximizing the value for shareholders by ensuring good social and environment performances

The theories of corporate governance are rooted in agency theory with the theory of moral hazard’s implications, further developing within stewardship theory and stakeholder theory and evolving at resource dependence theory, transaction cost theory and political theory. Later, to these theories was added ethics theory, information asymmetry theory or the theory of efficient markets

Question 14

Organizational economics

Answer 14

studies the nature of the obstacles to coordination of activities in
and between firms

identifies organizational alternatives with their costs and benefits

Question 15

Symbolic interpretivism

Answer 15

focuses on individual and group experiences within the organization and how these are interpreted. This theory can be seen as being based on the following theories: Social Construction Theory: Society is based on our interpretations and experiences

Question 16

Resource dependence theory (organizational level analysis)

Answer 16

• This theory suggests that when looking at environment, organizations usually have to deal with power and dependence
• It suggests that orgs should identify key players that are related to the org (e.g., suppliers, customers, investors, technology sector, employees). These players have different functions on the flow of resources.
• Organizations should assess their resources using criticality (what are important) and scarcity (what are difficult to get). This way, the org can come up with some strategies to make sure that they will have resources to feed into work process. For example, organizations should develop a good relationship with some suppliers to get important raw materials.

Question 17

Fragmentation perspective

Answer 17

relationships among the manifestations of a culture are neither clearly consistent nor clearly inconsistent, instead, the relationships are complex, containing elements of contradiction and confusion

consensus is transient and issue-specific; culture is no longer a clearing in the jungle of meaninglessness, it becomes the jungle itself

Question 18

Bounded Rationality

Answer 18

in general, the attempt to make a decision that is ‘good enough’ rather than the best possible solution.
When making decisions we often have imperfect and incomplete information, very complex problems, limited time, and conflicting preferences for org goals

Question 19

Interorganizational Relations Theory

Answer 19

• Addresses change across organizations
• Focuses on how organizations work together
• Based on the premise that collaboration among community organizations leads to a more comprehensive coordinated approach to a complex issue that can be achieved by one organization.
• Provides a useful foundation for understanding and enhancing community mobilization to address a range of public health issues such as emergency preparedness and tobacco control.

Question 20

Adhocracy

Answer 20

orgs that are temporary by design, also involving project teams that dispersed after project completion, sometimes “virtual” or “network” org (many innovative firms)

Question 21

Single-loop learning

Answer 21

results from feedback generated by a process of observing the consequences of action and using this knowledge to adjust subsequent actions in order to avoid similar mistakes in the future
E.g. a thermostat; budget
But the system cannot under any circumstances decide what the desired temperature should be.
Single-loop systems solve problems as given, they cannot tell you why something went wrong or make corrections

Question 22

Double-loop learning

Answer 22

Similar to the single loop learning
i.e. “results from feedback generated by a process of observing the consequences of action and using this knowledge to adjust subsequent action in order to avoid similar mistakes in the future”
DLL Questions its own assumptions and values, an act that can fundamentally change it into a self-organizing system capable of, and dependent upon, reflexivity
Self-organizing systems learn to learn and thus become intelligent enough to define and change their own operating criteria, behavior, and identity

Question 23

Isomorphism

Answer 23

– the form of the organization needs to be compatible with the environment (i.e., if the environment is complex, the organization has to be in a complex form too)

Question 24

Resource-based view of the firm

Answer 24

suggests that resources that are valuable, rare, difficult to imitate, and non-substitutable best position a firm for long-term success. These strategic resources can provide the foundation to develop firm capabilities that can lead to superior performance over time.

Question 25

Knowledge management

Answer 25

the sharing and integrating of expertise within and between functions and divisions through real-time, interconnected IT

Question 26

Social constructionism

Answer 26

theory that people develop knowledge of the world in a social context, and that much of what we perceive as reality depends on shared assumptions

in Org Change it places discourse and meaning-making as central to the process of change

Question 27

Structural inertia theory

Answer 27

• Organizations have difficulty changing strategy and structure quickly enough
• Under uncertain conditions, there are severe constraints on the ability of individuals to correctly conceive of and implement needed changes
• Therefore, the actions of individuals don’t explain much of the variation and diversity of organizational populations
  – – Individuals still matter, but they have bounded rationality and limited resources

Question 28

Tacit knowledge

Answer 28

The inability to articulate what is known is a hallmark of tacit knowledge. It is ambiguously understood
Tacit knowledge comprises all the personal, intuitive, and context-dependent understandings and appreciations that allow you to perform expertly or to function competently within a given cultural context.
What is more, the organization as a whole system continuously used and reshaped tacit knowledge of how a flute should feel at each stage of its manufacture.
The flute makers engaged in constant learning, making the flute manufacturing company an example of a learning organization.

Question 29

Principles of Classical Management Theory

Answer 29

• Unity of Command: an employee should receive orders from only one superior
• Scalar Chain: the line of authority from superior to subordinate, which runs from top to bottom of the organization; this chain, which results from the unity-of-command principle, should be used as a channel for communication and decision making
• Span of Control: the number of people reporting to one superior must not be so large that it creates problems of communication and coordination
• Staff and Line: staff personnel can provide valuable advisory services, but must be careful not to violate line of authority
• Initiative: to be encouraged at all levels of the organization
• Division of Work: management should aim to achieve a degree of specialization designed to achieve the goal of the organization in an efficient manner
• Authority and Responsibility: attention should be paid to the right to give orders and to exact obedience; an appropriate balance between authority and responsibility should be achieved. It is meaningless to make someone responsible for work if they are not given appropriate authority to execute that responsibility.
• Centralization (of Authority): always present in some degree, this must vary to optimize the use of faculties of personnel
• Discipline: obedience, application, energy, behavior, and outward marks of respect in accordance with agreed rules and customs
• Subordination of Individual Interests to General Interest: through firmness, example, fair agreements, and constant supervision
• Equity: based on kindness and justice, to encourage personnel in their duties; and fair remuneration, which encourages morale yet does not lead to overpayment
• Stability of Tenure Personnel: to facilitate the development of abilities
• Esprit de Corps: to facilitate harmony as a basis of strength

Question 30

The four frames of Org Theory

Answer 30

The four frames are structural, human resource, political, and symbolic
Examples
1. Factories – the structural frame (drawing from sociology, economics, and management science) looking at organizational architecture (including goals, structure, technology, specialized roles, coordination, and formal relationships). Problem is that when structure doesn’t align well with current situations
2. Families – the human resources frame (drawing from psychology) looking at human behaviors, needs, and feelings within orgs. It views individuals as extended families.
3. Jungles – the political frame (drawing from political science) looking at interests, conflicts, power, and scarce resources
4. Temple and carnivals – the symbolic frame (drawing from social and cultural anthropology) looking at organizational cultures. Org as theater is also part of this frame
Each frame has its own blindspots

Question 31

How to kill creativity

Answer 31

Pretend you know more than everyone else
Police employees
Run daily progress checks
Make professionals to technical works for long periods of time
Create significant/insurmountable barriers between frontline and decision-makers
Don’t speak to employees on a personal level
Be the spokesman for your areas of responsibility
Say yes to new ideas and take no action
Call many meetings
Put all new ideas through various channels
Stick to protocol
Worry about budgets
Support “not-invented-here” syndrome

Question 32

contingency theory

Answer 32

claims that there is no best way to organize a corporation, to lead a company, or to make decisions. Instead, the optimal course of action is contingent (dependent) upon the internal and external situation. Contingent leaders are flexible in choosing and adapting to succinct strategies to suit the change in situation at a particular period in time in the running of the organization.

According to Morgan (book) -

• Organizations are open systems that need careful management to satisfy and balance internal needs and to adapt to environmental circumstances
• There is no one best way of organizing. The appropriate form depends on the kind of task or environment one is dealing with.
• Management must be concerned, above all else, with achieving alignments and good fits
• Different types or specifics of organizations are needed in different types of environments

—The primary contribution of contingency theory has been to make us aware that are many different ways to organize successfully (modernist perspective)

Mintzberg

Question 33

Lewin’s model of planned organizational change

Answer 33

Unfreezing - Moving - Refreezing

• Lewin developed an equilibrium theory based on his belief that orgs result from a balance of forces, some driving change and the others restraining it
• Stability is not only maintained by the forces opposing change, it represents a stalemate between forces for and against change
• Involves 3 separate activities:
• – Unfreezing: unbalances the equilibrium sustaining the org stability and this is accomplished by destabilizing present behavioral patterns sufficiently to overcome resistance to change
• – Movement involves influencing the direction of change in the destabilized system. Strategies for influencing the direction of change include training new behavioral patterns, altering reporting relationships and reward systems, and introducing different styles of management
• – Refreezing occurs when new behavioral patterns are institutionalized, such as formalizing new recruiting policies to assure that new hires share the org culture
• This model does not say much about the ways in which a system responds to the introduction of programmatic change

In Chaos Theory there is no Refreezing

Question 34

Process theory

Answer 34

suggests that organizing is a continually evolving process and orgs are in a perpetual state of becoming
- A process orientation prioritizes activity over product, change over persistence, novelty over continuity and expression over determination

Question 35

SWOT analysis

Answer 35

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats

Question 36

Perceived Attributes of Innovations

Answer 36

Innovations have different characteristics and different rates of adoption

1. Relative advantage: degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the idea it supersedes. Economic, social prestige, convenience, and satisfaction are important factors.
2. Compatibility: degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values.
3. Complexity: degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use.
4. Trialability: the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis. Adopted more quickly if it can be tried on the installment plan because represented less uncertainty.
5. Observability: degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others.
   - - Overall, innovations that have greater relative advantage, compatibility, trialability, and observability, and less complexity will be adopted more rapidly.

Question 37

Innovation Typologies

Answer 37

1 - Woodward - groups companies by level of technical complexity (1 units and small batches, 2 large batches or mass, 3 continuous processing) (ignored the technologies used to provide services)
2 - Thompson - added manufacturing and service sector technologies (1 long-linked technologies involve linear transformation processes, 2 mediating technologies serve client/customer needs by bringing them together to mediate a thing i.e., banking with investors/savers and loan takers, 3 intensive technology like hospital ER require coordination of specialized abilities
3 - Perrow - went to task level of analysis (2x2 of task variability [number of “exceptions” encountered] and task analyze-ability [extent there is a method to deal with an “exception”] (1 routine tech LH, 2 craft tech LL, 3 engineering tech HH, nonroutine tech HL)

Question 38

Hofstede Org Culture Dimensions

Answer 38

Power Distance
Uncertainty avoidance (avoid taking risks, low UA more innovative and risk-taking, high UA more strict rules/regs)
Individualism VS Collectivism
Masculine VS Feminine
Time Orientation (long term VS short term)

Question 39

Schein’s theory of Org Culture

Answer 39

Basic Assumptions - general beliefs/perceived reality, typically not cognizant of it & taken for granted, noticeable in a foreign culture
Values - what members care about the most, sometimes equated to morality/ethics
Norms - common understanding and behavioral expectations
Artifacts - visible expressions from values and norms

Question 40

Organizational Ecology

Answer 40

Ecological approaches highlight the creation of new organizations and the demise of old ones; i.e., the founding and failure rates

Question 41

Organizational decision making

Answer 41

the process of responding to a problem by searching for and selecting a solution or course of action that will create value for organizational stakeholders
The Rational Model: 1 - id problem, 2 - generate solutions, 3 - pick and implement solution

Question 42

Organizational learning

Answer 42

the process through which managers seek to improve organization members’ desire and ability to understand and manage the organization and its environment

Question 43

Learning organization (& 4 Levels)

Answer 43

an organization that purposefully designs and constructs its structure, culture, and strategy so as to enhance and maximize the potential for organizational learning to take place
- 4 level of organizational learning
1 - Individual-level learning: managers need to facilitate the learning of new skills, norms, and values so that individuals can increase their own personal skills and abilities
2 - Group-level learning: managers need to encourage learning by promoting the use of various kinds of groups so that individuals can share or pool their skills and abilities
3 - Organizational-level learning: managers can promote organizational learning through the way they create an organization’s structure and culture
4 - Interorganizational-level learning: organizations can improve their effectiveness by copying and imitating each others’ distinctive competences

Question 44

resource dependence theory

Answer 44

• the study of how the external resources of organizations affect the behavior of the organization
  A fundamental assumption of is that dependence on “critical” and important resources influences the actions of organizations and that organizational decisions and actions can be explained depending on the particular dependency situation
• Pfeffer and Salancik reason dependence on the environment creates uncertainty for organizations which creates opportunities for org actors to gather power
• symbols help to establish and maintain power by supporting interpretations of who has power

Question 45

Organizations as Flux and Transformation

Answer 45

The flux and transformation metaphor emphasizes processes, self-reference and
unpredictability through embracing theories of autopoiesis, chaos and complexity
in organizations.

Question 46

Organizations as Psychic Prisons

Answer 46

could likely be boiled down to - don’t get stuck in the ways of doing things just because they have been the way to do things

The psychic prison metaphor draws from psychoanalytical theories to examine the psyche, the unconscious, and ways that organizations entrap their members.

Question 47

Organizations as cultures

Answer 47

The culture metaphor emphasizes symbolic and informal aspects of organizations as well as the creation of shared meanings among actors.

Question 48

Organizations as Instruments of Domination

Answer 48

The instrument of domination metaphor draws from Marxist and critical theories to highlight exploitation, control, and unequal distribution of power performed in and by organizations.

Question 49

Organizations as Politics

Answer 49

The political system metaphor encompasses stakeholder theories, diversity of interests, and conflict and power in organizations.

Question 50

Organizations as Brain

Answer 50

(rat brain…) despite how much I don’t like this one…
it does provide easily accessible view for organizational learning and the need for that

The brain metaphor focuses on the cognitive features of organizations and encompasses learning theories and cybernetics

Question 51

Organizations as Machines

Answer 51

1. Classical management (efficiency is key) and scientific management emphasize efficiency and control
   - “Routinized, efficient, reliable, and predictable” (p. 13)
2. The organization as a machine lends itself to the principles of classical & scientific management as workers are viewed as extensions of the organizational machine, being standardized, reliable, precise, predictable, controllable, and interchangeable
3. This school of thought seeks to rationalize operations
4. There are evident downfalls with the model as mechanistic design lends itself to many organizational issues
5. key definition&raquo_space; Bureaucracy: “a form of organization that emphasizes precision, speed, clarity, regularity, reliability, and efficiency achieved through the creation of a fixed division of tasks, hierarchical supervision, and detailed rules and regulations” (as defined by Max Weber)

Strengths: simple conceptualization of org designed for efficiency, control, precision, standardization, predictability
Weaknesses: neglect of human aspect of work leading to new organizational issues (e.g., high absenteeism, low morale, high turnover) that cannot be dealt with within machine framework

Mechanistic form works best in stable environments as it focuses mainly on efficiency and tries to maximize profit and lower the costs.

Question 52

Strengths and Limitations of the Machine Metaphor

Answer 52

’- Strengths: simple conceptualization of org designed for efficiency, control, precision, standardization, predictability
- Weaknesses: neglect of human aspect of work leading to new organizational issues (e.g., high absenteeism, low morale, high turnover) that cannot be dealt with within machine framework
- Mechanistic Organizations work well when a machine could also do the work:
eg.,g “When there is a straightforward task to perform, when the environment is stable enough to ensure that the products produced will be appropriate ones, when one wishes to produce exactly the same product time and again, when precision is at a premium, when the human ‘machine’ parts are compliant and behave as they have been designed to.”
- Limitations of a Mechanistic Organization (p. 28)
“Can create organizational forms that have great difficulty in adapting to changing circumstances, can result in mindless and unquestioning bureaucracy, can have unanticipated and undesirable consequences as the interests of those working in the organization take precedence over the goals the organization was designed to achieve, can have dehumanizing effects upon employees, especially those at lower levels of the organizational hierarchy”
- Standardized procedures are unable to adapt to new circumstances or crises
- Mechanistic approach does not lend itself to dealing with uncertainty, change, ambiguity
- Leads to problems of inaction, lack of coordination, inadequate response, lack of initiative/apathy, development of subgoals and interests that undermine org’s ability to meet its primary objectives

Question 53

Organizations as Organisms

Answer 53

survival of the “fitting” - certain species of organization are better “adapted” to specific environmental conditions than others
- organizations as living systems within wider environment is satisfy various needs
Open Systems
i. the concept of an ‘open system’ - organisms exists in a continuous exchange with their environment, characterized by cycle of input, internal transformation, output, and feedback
ii. homeostasis – refers to self-regulation and ability to maintain steady-state
iii. entropy/negative entropy – close systems and traffic in that they deteriorate and run down; open systems attempt to send themselves by importing energy to offset entropic tendencies
iv. structure, function, differentiation, and integration – structure depends on functions, more complex more differentiation like specialized organs, requiring complex duration to maintain system as a whole i.e. operation of brain
v. requisite variety – internal regulatory mechanisms of the system must be as diverse as the environment which is trying to deal
vi. equifinality – an open system there may be many different ways of arriving at a given end state
vii. system evolution – capacity of the system of all depends on ability to move to more complex forms of differentiation and integration

Organic form is more flexible for changes as this form of organization is able to adapt to a changing environment.

This metaphor turns attention to general issues of survival, organization environment relations, and organizational effectiveness

Question 54

Strengths and Limitations of the Organismic Metaphor

Answer 54

a. Strengths
i. emphasis placed on understanding relation between organizations and their environments (mechanical theories more or less ignored role of environment), they are open systems and best understood as ongoing processes rather than a collection of parts
ii. management of organizations can often be improved through systematic attention to the needs that must be satisfied if the organization is to survive
iii. stresses the virtue of organic forms of organization in the process of innovation
iv. contributions to theory and practice of OD, especially through the contingency approach
v. important contributions through the focus on ‘ecology’ and interorganizational relations
b. Limitations
i. lead to view organizations and their environments in the way that is far too concrete - both the contingency theorists and population ecologists the use make organizations dependent upon forces operating in an external world rather than recognizing that they are active agents operating with others in the construction of that world
ii. Assumption of ‘functional unity’ - although organizations may at times be highly unified, with people in different departments working in a selfless way for the organization as a whole, they may at other times be characterized by schism and major conflict
iii. the danger of the metaphor becoming an ideology - it shouldn’t be the normative guideline for shaping practice