Origins of WWI Flashcards
1
Q
Describe the alliance networks in 1887 (Clark - 7 points)
A
- Britain ↓ France (Africa disputes)
- Britain ↓ Russia (Asia & Persia disputes)
- France ↓ Germany (1870 War)
Russia ↓ AH (over Balkans) - Italy ↓ Austria (over the Adriatic)
- Italy ↓ France (Africa)
- Russia ↑ Germany (Reinsurance Treaty following the decline of the Three Emperors’ League – designed to restrain AH)
- Secondary Alliance ↑ GBR/ITA/AH – To thwart French
2
Q
Describe the alliance networks in 1890s (Clark - 3 points)
A
- Britain ↑ Germany - Early 1890s good for Anglo-German relations – Russia feared that Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty, 1890 signalled Britain’s entry to the Triple Alliance. French emphasised this.
- France ↑ Russia, through deepening economic ties . ipso facto Britain ↑ France, as tensions over Asian and Middle Eastern territories cooled.
- Britain ↑ Japan – Restrain Russia – power-sharing imperial arrangement.
3
Q
Describe the alliance networks in 1907 (Clark - 2 points)
A
Triple Alliance (GER/ITA/AH) – Still functional Entente.
Cordiale (GBR/FRA/RUS) – Following British rapprochement with Russia.
4
Q
Who were the combatants in the First Balkan War?
A
Ottoman Empire Vs. Balkan League (Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia)
5
Q
What caused the First Balkan War?
A
Caused by deposition of the Young Turks in 1912, which suggested primacy of military action against OE whilst weak
6
Q
What were the primary motivations in the First Balkan War?
A
All desired the reduction of OE influence on Balkans, plus territorial gains. Bulgaria was involved to liberate Macedonia, with ambitions of annexation
7
Q
What could be said of the style of warfare during the Balkan Wars?
A
First real forum of modern warfare
8
Q
Who were the combatants of the Second Balkan War?
A
Bulgaria Vs. Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, Romania, Ottoman Empire (OE)
9
Q
What were the outcomes of the Second Balkan War?
A
45,000 killed – Serbia (both wars), 7,500 – Greece, 3000 – Mont, 32,000 –Bulgaria, 100,000 – OE o 590 mil fr – Serb, 100 mil fr – Mont, 467 mil fr – Greece, 1.3 bil fr – Bulgaria o Serbia = biggest winner – driving concern in Vienna. Serbia disproportionately benefit through a double in land-mass, and a population increase from 2,912,000 to 4,444,000.
10
Q
What were the longer term motivators of the Balkan conflicts?
A
1- Emulation of ITA/ GER nationalism
2- Baltic nations had irredentist motivations to restore territory from OE.
3- Ottoman Millet system to nation-state
4- Bulgaria – Revival of Bulgarian Empire / Greece – Revival of Byzantium / Monte-Serbia – Empire under Stephan Dushan
11
Q
What conflicts occurred in the Balkans during the 19th Century?
A
Serbia + Monte ⚔OE 1876, revolts in Bulgaria against OE, Russian intervention in 1878 (Russo-Turkish War) resulted in enlarged Serbia+Monte, independent Bulgaria (Treaty of San Stefano) – reversed through the Congress of Berlin 1881
– Serbia recognised as state, but shrunk
12
Q
Detail the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 (3 Points)
A
- July 1908 – Enver Pasha of Young Turks successfully takes Constantinople, has ambitious reform agenda – revival of Ottoman Empire, Ottoman identity and military (had been in decline over last century)
- Potential for revived OE concerned Russia and Austria-Hungary (AH), whom had ambitions on Eastern Europe (which a strong OE would prevent)
- Triggered pre-emptive action – AH seized Bosnia-Herzegovina (BH)
– dismayed Russians (AH – geostrategic enemy), frustrated Serbians, who saw BH as part of irredentist agenda
13
Q
Detail the Algeciras Conference (2 Points)
A
- On Morocco, 1906
- Convened to regulate imperialist competition – outcome found German action in Morocco to be improper, weighed in French favour, further ostracised Germany on European stage
14
Q
Detail the Agadir Crisis, 1911 (1 Point)
A
- Germany dispatched Panther warships to Morocco, a violation of the 1906 conference on Morocco, and a demonstration of disillusionment with the European Great Powers. After Agadir Crisis, Mommsen contends a cult of inevitability existed around war
15
Q
Detail the causes of the Balkan League, 1912 (3 Points)
A
- Precipitated by AH movements on BH and revived OE – security threat encouraged mutual participation of Slavic nations. Aided by agitation within the OE for self-determination (Albania)
- Balkan League would check OE for all parties (Greece, Montenegro, Serbia and Bulgaria), Serbia had alliance against AH and Bulgaria was galvanised by interest in Macedonia
- Catalysed by Italo-Turkish War 1911-12.
16
Q
Detail the Limon Affair, 1912 (1 Point)
A
- Limon Von Sanders stationed to defend the Turkish Straits against Russian opportunism – read as a ‘thunderclap’ in St. Petersburg.
17
Q
Detail the July Crisis, 1914 (1 Point)
A
- AH issued ultimatum to Serbia, listing a series of demands upon Serbia responsive to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Most demands were accepted, but would not allow AH into conduct judicial review – seen to compromise sovereignty.
18
Q
What is the Epigone Complex?
A
- Thomas Rohkrämer - Wilhelmine Germans (1859-1866); too young to have participated in the wars of unification, wished to prove themselves. Example of this would be Moltke the Younger
19
Q
What were the impacts of social darwinism
A
Fuelled German ambitions of expansion – superior race etc., also justified aloofness of Britain in affair
20
Q
What was the macroeconomic picture during the period?
A
America-Germany-U.S. Triangle created manufacturing powerhouse
21
Q
What was the dominant cultural trend of the period?
A
Mixture of optimism and pessimism / pessimism in the country, optimism/ pro-war sentiment in the small coterie
Tendency to see support in urban centres, resentment in rural.
would be a far stretch to determine that a “Nietschean destructive mindset” dominated Europe
22
Q
What was the Serbian-Bulgarian Accord
A
- 1904
- Military Alliance
- Planned to exploit the Ottoman Empire
- Failed due to the strained relationship between the partners
23
Q
Provide some context for Austria-Hungary
A
Tied strongly to Germany, with dysfunctional state. Dual monarchy
system, decrepit Parliament; feared encirclement, despised Russia. Poor relations with Slavs and Romanians. One perspective of war sees AH engaging in war as a failed project of social imperialism, and a mask for the insolvable internal discord in the nation. Others (Schroeder) do not see leadership crisis as decisive in war.
24
Q
Provide some context for Germany
A
Economic supremacy into 1890s spurred movements to assert itself on the world stage, a deviation from the Bismarckian tradition of avoiding imperial and expansionist objectives in order to consolidate peace and focus on internal reform. This contributed to the policy of Weltpolitik, which in turn drove tensions between Germany and Britain (often tied to the naval arms race). Further, feared encirclement.
25
Provide some context for Serbia
Balkan nation, with significant tensions with AH. Significant irredentist objectives, state perforated by radical terrorist groups. Made significant gains in the Balkan wars (over double land mass), became intolerable threat to AH. Serbia experienced significant population increase alongside a farming output per capita decline by 27.5% (due to urbanisation), Suffered chronic issue of poor investment “Bleak, even by Balkan standards” – combination of xenophobia and poor business ethics in the area. Ran the risk of “growth without development”
26
Provide some context for Montenegro
Balkan nation. Close in affairs with Serbia, also had poor relations to AH
27
Provide some context for Greece
Involved in Balkan affair. Sought to reclaim territory as a romantic project to revive Byzantium.
28
Provide some context for Bulgaria
Balkan nation. Sought the revival of Bulgarian Empire, starting with the reclamation of land in Macedonia. Member of the Balkan League, then its victim – suffering invasion by six nations in the Second Balkan War.
29
Provide some context for Albania
Part of OE until 1912, at which point became independent. Serbian attempts on Albania were halted by AH.
30
Provide some context for Macedonia
Ethnic composition varied – Serbs, Greeks and Bulgarians all attempted to win over – rising tensions between Bulgaria and Serbia over.
31
Provide some context for the UK
Fluid relations across Europe. Not directly involved in Balkan affair,
however generally aimed to check Russian influence – conflict existed in Asia and Middle-East. Tensions with Germany earlier on, however a degree of rapprochement had occurred.
32
Provide some context for France
Developed strong ties to Russia during the period, financing substantial ventures taken by Russia and Serbia. French loans allowed Serbia to ride out the Pig War, which also gave Serbia an ‘alarming’ amount of autonomy from AH. Generally hated Germany, was not amazingly keen on the UK (quelle surprise).
33
Provide some context for Italy
Had a war with Turkey. That’s about it.
34
Provide some context for Russia
Major player in affair. Tensions with the Great Powers and in particular AH/ Germany were drivers of war. Desired access to the Turkish Straits, and attempted to affect the balance of power in Eastern Europe in order to weigh in the nation’s advantage.
35
Provide some context for the Ottoman Empire
A degrading nation which was temporarily invigorated by efforts by
the Young Turks from 1908-12. The revival under the Young Turks threatened a stronger, more belligerent military, which would be more assertive in Eastern Europe and against Russian motions to gain a warm-water port.
36
Provide some context for the European Concert of Great Powers
Organisation set up post-Napoleonic wars, with the
goal to establish cooperation in international affairs; chiefly, to ensure ius belli, to act as guarantors of treaties, to deploy coercive powers to maintain balance of power. Demonstrably effective in the Congress of Berlin, 1878, to arbitrate the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish conflict.
37
Who is Gavrilo Princip?
Serbian member of the Black Hand (or the Union or Death!) responsible for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
38
Who is Theophile Decasse?
French foreign minister who began strengthening the Franco-Russian alliance from 1898 to combat the rise of German Weltpolitik.
39
Who is Friedrich Engels?
Marxist explanatory framework perceived the remit of global warfare to be the modern warfare variant exhibited – a conflict of mass-consumption – of material and lives.
40
Who is Moltke the Younger?
Engaged in a ‘preventative war’
41
Who is Tirpitz?
Advocate of challenging British naval hegemony
42
Who is Dragutin Dimitrijevic?
Instrumental in the May Coup in Serbia, became leading member of government alongside other key regicides. Also known as ‘Apis’
43
Who were the Serbian National Defence?
Emergent militant nationalist organisation in Serbia; public, opposed to the Union or Death!
44
What did the Secretary of State Bernhard von Bülow state in a Reichstag speech, 1897?
we don’t want to put anyone in the shadow; but we too demand our place in the sun”
45
When was the Crimean War settled?
Congress of Paris - 1856
46
When was Italy reunified?
1861
47
When was the Franco-Russian Alliance military convention?
Franco-Russian Alliance Military Convention – committed both nations to military intervention
48
When were German motions in Transvaal challenged by the British?
1895
* Transvaal Republic - Boers - British wanted to absorb the Transvaal (for gold) - Germans opposed motion - carried raid into Transvaal
* Britain threatened to engage in naval bombing if Germany intervened
* Britain behaved like a dominant power (not malevolent)
49
What are Clark's suggested reasons for German interest in the Triple Alliance? (4 Points)
* Access to the Med
* Protection from France (i.e. the Alpine Frontier with France from ITA)
* Stabilisation of the Balkans
* Power alliance to tether power - hospitality as a form of control analogous to the Alliance - stabilisation to prevent conflict between ITA and AH
50
What was notable about the situation in 1880s regarding alliances?
Paradoxes - how would GER support Austria if in conflict with Russia, due to the Reinsurance Treaty?
51
What drove France to Russia in the 1890s?
The lack of renewal of the Reinsurance Treaty between Russia and Germany
52
What drove Britain's departure from isolation?
* For naval pressure (traditional)
* Fear of Russia (revisionist) - Britain leveraged the French / Russian relationship to offset the threat of Russia
* Driving concern is Russia, post Boer War, can no longer finance war in Northern India
* Small force faced Russian Armies
* Liberals came in on platform of retrenchment - movement from military to social objectives
53
What did the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention conclude?
* To check German naval expansion / imperialist ambitions
* Russia has become weaker - 1904-5 - Russia engages in war with Japan, war was disastrous - mass-killing
* Weaker Russia less of threat, therefore Britain exploits
* Oil is starting to become an issue
* Navy moving to oil
* Huge increase in demand for oil
* Recognition that the Middle East had massive oil reserves
54
What is (and what is not) Weltpolitik?
A desire for a global role for Germany. This is not tantamount to world domination
55
What happened in 1903, Serbia?
Assassination of King Alexander Obrenović of Serbia, replaced by the house of Karađorđević – changing the balance from neutral to anti-AH. The Karadordevic house contrastingly aligned to Russia
56
Historian: Chris Clark (Sleepwalkers - 6 Points)
1- Assassination of Obrenovic 1903 destabilised Serbia
2- Conspiratorial force in 1903 remained in government
3- Memory of Serbian struggle against alien rule became seated in radicals in power
4- Mismatch of visionary unification and meagre resources led to opportunism on the Balkan peninsula
5- Belgrade political elite became accustomed to a kind of doublethink founded on intermittent pretence that the foreign policy of official Serbia and the work of the national liberation beyond the frontiers were separate phenomena
6- Whilst in 1887 the alliance system would have prevented war, but 1907, it facilitated it
57
What impact did Clark's publication have?
- Recent publication, well received in academic circles
- Ignition of debate, shifted emphasis away from the traditional German-centric reading of war to place greater responsibility on East and contingency – taking agency from structural arguments
58
What are the broad trends in historiography?
- Structuralism vs contingency
- Central Power accountability focus
- Movement East for accountability
59
Historian: Berghahn (Origins - 3 Points)
Thematic approach
1- European Colonialism/ Imperialism was a dominant part of thought during the period
2- Domestic politics - AH as engaging in conflict to avert interest in decaying system
3- Cultural developments and armaments
60
Historian: Hall* (Serbia - 3 Points)
| Written in the wake of the collapse of Yugoslavia
Focus on the Balkan Wars
- Sees WWI as extension of BWs
- Perceives BW as first forum of modern warfare, foreshadowing WWI (esp. impasse at Chataldzha
- AH ultimatum to Serbia on Albania – could have ignited WWI before assassination -Failure of the Great Powers to intervene to enforce the Berlin Settlement ‘would find themselves at war in two years’
61
Historian: van der Oye, Russian Foreign Policy
| The Russian Dimension
1- Russian efforts in Asia ran in direct countenance to British imperialist ambitions
2- British focus on 19th century was the maintenance of balance of powers
3- Alexander II of Russia made dramatic conquests in Asia
4- Argues Russia did not want war, but did not want to lose Balkan ally in Serbia – conceded too much with BH.
62
Afflerbach & Stevenson, (Improbable War? - 4 Points)
1-“Nearly no-one abroad believed the Sarajevo Affair would escalate into continental war”
2- Outlining the topos of war opinion is fundamentally a moot task
3– cannot generalise a continent of opinion. Inevitability topos forged in print media not necessarily reflected in public opinion.
4- Serbian-AH affair – gamble taken that no-one thought global warfare a thinkable or desirable outcome.
63
Winifred Baumgart (Imperialism - 4 Points)
1- Naval imperialism the dominant mode of thought during the period, following the influential text by Alfred Thayar Mahan’s 1890 The Influence of Sea Power on History
2- There was an insoluble link between nationalism and imperialism in Germany – Pan German League, 1891, reactive to the Helgoland-Zanzibar Treaty. Challenged the Bismarckian consensus.
3- Social Darwinism v strong during the period, empowered British monopoly control in the world- evidence – contemporary publications: Kidd, 1894, Social Evolution – and the Boer War.
4- Social Darwinism a likely agent on imperialist impulse.
64
Hamilton (Definitions and Causes - 11 Points)
- Against ‘Big Narratives’, belief in the role of the small coterie of actors in major states across Europe.
- 10 possible causes for war:
1. Treaties
2. Militarism
3. Nationalism
4. Economic Imperialism
5. Press
6. Social Darwinism
7. Suppression of domestic revolutionary tendencies
8. Accidental Slide
9. Composite of factors
10. Strategic war
65
Schroeder (Stealing Horses to Great Applause - 7 Points)
1- WWI the result of changes to unwritten European norms
2- War decision Austria’s, not Germany’s
3- Austria motivated by intolerable, growing threat from enemies (Russian, Serbian, OE) – fear of encirclement, isolation, death by 1000 cuts
4- External factors were more complicit in causing war, aside from the traditional model of perceiving issues with the Dual Monarchy and the assassination as stimuli
5- AH efforts in Serbia as preventative war against Russia, similar to the motion taken by Japan. AH too late however, resulted in impasse involving all European states.
6- Turning Point – annexation of BH – spiralling of AH-Serbian relations and AH-Russo relations.
7- BH annexation as innocuous and mild – GP compelled to support AH, but did not want to really – “negative Austrophilia”
66
Schulz (Did Norms Matter? 3 Points)
1- Failure of European multinationalism contributed towards the war – European Concert of Great Powers, set up post-Napoleon, no longer effectual. Mainly due to French/German antipathy.
2- German transition from positive international law to Weltpolitik was seen as regressive – broke from the Western-Liberal tradition
3– Sonderweg – war presented as a glorious, cleansing, heroic venture.
67
Williams (Aggressive & Defensive Aims of Political Elites - 1 Point)
1- War was not uniquely the result of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Across 1912 to 1914, four serious flashpoints occurred – with Serbia (December 1912, October 1913) and with Montenegro (May 1913). Desire to avoid these indicates a degree of contingency
68
Kießling (Unfought Wars - 3 Points)
1- Faith in détente was a key driver behind the belief in the improbability of war – Anglo-Germanic co-op through 1910-14 suggested potential for peace. (i.e. discussions of a Anglo-Germanic front to Russia).
2- Détente however a stumbling bloc – the closer Germany became to the UK, the greater the scepticism of the French, which consolidated the Franco-Russian alliance. Détente highlighted the instability and nervousness in Europe
3- Monumental rupture of WWI historically does not mean equally monumental causes are to be expected.
69
What did the events of the Pig War signify
“Mark a distinct step in the economic and political liberation of Serbia’
70
What was the Pig War?
Embargo of pork to Serbia from AH. Survived through French loans
71
What quote from Sir Edward Grey reflects the British commitment to its treaties?
“not able to subscribe to the doctrine ... that the simple fact of the existence of a guarantee is binding on every party to it irrespectively altogether of the particular position in which it may find itself at the time when the occasion for acting on the guarantee arises. The great authorities upon foreign policy to whom I have been accustomed to listen - such as Lord Aberdeen and Lord Palmerston — never, to my knowledge, took that rigid and, if I may say so, that impracticable view of a guarantee.”
72
What did Benjamin Disraeli comment about the Franco-Prussian war of 1870?
the Franco-Prussian War was seen as the dislocation of the whole machinery of states
73
McMeekin - what is his core argument?
The Russian dimension is not considered in traditional literature, however this is a distortion caused by the closure of the archives during the period of the majority of the writing on WWI
74
McMeekin - what was the impact of the Napoleonic Wars on Russia?
Insecurity on Western border
75
McMeekin - What was the Russian ambition in the West?
Crush the Ottoman Empire and Austria Hungary. Establish control of the Turkish Straits to open economic routes in Europe (no warm water ports otherwise)
76
McMeekin - What was the significance of the Balkan wars to the Russians?
A scenario in which war theories could be tested - more for planning
77
McMeekin - What, contrary to conventional wisdom, did the Russians fear?
The German steamroller - economic superpower loomed on the western front
78
McMeekin - what is significant about the fact Russia's ius belli in 1914 was seemingly intervention on behalf of Serbia?
Serbia, Russia’s ius belli, July 1914 was of purely symbolic interest to Russian foreign policy – could have intervened in 1908
79
How does McMeekin dismiss the notion that Serbia was the cause of the war?
"Great powers do not usually mobilise armies of millions to protect the territorial integrity of minor client states"
80
What was the Ottoman Empire supposed to be for the Russians?
a new Tsargrad
81
McMeekin - what brought the Russians close to war?
The Limon von Sanders affair - stationing of German naval assets on the Turkish straits during the Balkan war was clearly provocative - sounded as a thunderclap in Moscow.
82
What did (bad historian) David Fromkin suggest about the nature of WWI?
invisible storm’ hit European airliner, though had been in dangerous skies for quite some time. European Nietzsche mood – not so much of the masses, but of the small coterie (does not succeed in marrying contingency with determinism, nor short with long term factors)
83
What did Stig Forster highlight about the war?
‘myth’ of a short war – rationally not possible – unless Germans and Americans were blind to the manifold forces that were transforming warfare into a protracted and ruinous ordeal (think: the Balkan affair was not really publicised)
84
Where, according to Mayer, was politics militarised?
Moroccan Crisis galvanized militarization of politics
85
What is a traditional narrative which places the blame of the war solely on Germany?
Fritz Fischer, 1960s
86
Verhey - What was the spirit of 1914?
Spirit of 1914 – force for binding people to the nation –generation of a Volksgemeinschaft / conservative fabrication
87
Verhey - what difficulty exists in the quantification of public opinion during this period?
Public opinion polls did not exist!
88
Verhey - what complicates the narrative of 1914?
Retrospectives are complicating the narrative of 1914
89
What did rituals of patriotic practice do to the peasantry of Germany? (Verhey)
Turned them into Germans
90
Who was most interested in perpetuating the myth of 1914? (Verhey)
The conservative press
91
How many actually marched in Berlin for war? (Verhey)
Crowds actually not that significant – only 1% of the Berlin population was involved in pro-war marches (30,000)
92
How many turned up for SDP anti-war campaigns?
SDP engaged in anti-war demonstrations / all in all, 750,000 engaged in anti-war movements Emotion difficult to quantify – tension mistaken as enthusiasm
93
How was war presented to the German people?
```
- Holy War
'Let the Holy War begin
The united Germany will win
Because all are holding together
City dweller and farmer, young and old.'
```
94
What did the Germans take from the August experience?
Innate pleasure in being able to watch and participate in world history.
95
What does Carl Schmitt recognise about war?
Mythic times - times in which people not only feel the power of fate, the inadequacy of reason to shape their individual destinies, but also the importance of will in helping them overcome an existential crisis.
96
The First Moroccan Crisis
March 1905-May 1906
- Worsened GER relations with UK /FR
- Strengthened UK/FR relationship
- Kaiser pledged to support Sultan claim to sovereignty in Morocco - challenging French influence
- Sultan rejected French reform plans
- Germany called conference, French rebuked - Germany threatened war over.
- France readied for war, but backed down
- French moved troops to GER border
- Concessions granted, France maintained dominance of political and financial affairs
- Evidence of brinkmanship?
97
What happened during the Agadir Crisis? (Second Morocco Crisis)
- Rebellion in Morocco in 1911 - French prepared mobilisation of troops
- Germans dispatched warships to region to support 'trade interests' - enraged French, mobilised troops
- Germany had to back down due to financial crisis
- French established full protectorate over Morocco - ending independence.
- Further estranged Germany
-
98
How did Russia interpret Germany's motion through the July Crisis?
Sergey Sazonov - Germany engaged in a preventative war
99
How did Serbia respond to the Austrian ultimatum?
Serbia’s response effectively accepted all terms of the ultimatum but one: it would not accept Austria-Hungary’s participation in any internal inquiry, stating that this would be a violation of the Constitution and of the law of criminal procedure.
Pasic began the mobilisation of his army
100
What was issued on 5 July 1914?
German 'blank cheque'
101
signal European cultural positivity
the Arts and Crafts movement in Britain, and the Werkbund movement in Germany, were emblematic of this
102
Vittorio Emmanuele III quote
In telegram to American diplomats,
| "I am more than ever convinced of the worthlessness of treaties, or any agreements written on paper"
