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RELIGIOUS STUDIES A2 > Origins of Hinduism > Flashcards

Origins of Hinduism Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the timespan of the IVC, and what period followed it?

A

2500-1500 BCE, followed by the Vedic period 1500-500 BCE

BUT J Fowler: 3300-3000 BCE

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2
Q

Geographical dimensions of the IVC

A
  • Covered 1.25 km^2, most widespread of the old world civilisations
  • Flourished along Indus river between Eastern Pakistan and Northwest India
  • Major sites are Harappa in the Punjab and Mohenjo Dharo in Sind
  • 1200 minor sites
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3
Q

Uncovering the IVC

A
  • First excavations in 1921 by Sir John Marshall/R.D. Bannerjee
  • Excavations impeded by ill health and WW2 but later continued by Sir Mortimer Wheeler
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4
Q

Evidence of infrastructure in the IVC

A
  • Grid pattern streets in North-South East-West orientation
  • Drainage system and waste disposal shoot per house
  • Single room buildings at each intersection (watchmen?)
  • Uniform brick size suggests mass production and measurement scale?
  • Artificially raised Citadel (fortified core of city)
  • Large, purposeful buildings which might have been grain stores?
  • Water tank at Mohenjo dharo along with bathing areas
  • Street lighting
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5
Q

Populations of key sites

A
  • 40 000 approx.
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6
Q

Trade relations in the IVC

A
  • Trade links with Mesopotamia between 2300-2000 BCE
  • Copper and Lead sourced from India
  • Minerals imported from Iran/Afghanistan
  • Cotton export
  • Would have required administration
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7
Q

Seals and figurines in the IVC

A
  • Ceramic seals found which depict images of animals, humans and anthropomorphic figures
  • Cows and Bulls depicted - a possible link to later Hinduism (Sacred cows and Shiva’s bull Nandi)?
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8
Q

IVC seal linked to Shiva?

A
  • Yogic position
  • Three faces and elaborate headdress
  • Surrounded by variety of animals
  • -> Shiva as Pasupati, Lord of the Beasts?
  • Ithyphallic
  • Cone shaped phallic symbols
  • –> Reminiscent of later anionic linga and yoni?
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9
Q

Female figurines in the IVC?

A
  • Pregnant and carrying small children
  • Necklaces
  • Elaborate hairstyles
  • Clearly produced in mass as most are crudely formed
  • -> Shakti the mother goddess? Or just proto Saraswati, Parvati or Lakshmi?
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10
Q

The Great Bath at Mohenjo Dharo

A
  • Large waterproof pit: 39”/23”/8”
  • Long building with several cells
  • -> Potentially a temple for ritual purification
  • -> Also linked (J. Fowler) to horned deity with mask found nearby
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11
Q

Conflicting views on Proto-Shiva seals in the IVC

A
  • May or may not be in yogic position
  • May or may not have three heads
  • Asko Parpola notes the similarity between these and figures found on Elamite seals from 3000-2750 BCE
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12
Q

Conflicting views on female figures in IVC

A
  • In agrarian society fertility is a major pre-occupation

- Though symbolic, the link between this symbol and Shakti is tenuous

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13
Q

Conflicting views on the nature of the Great Bath at Mohenjo Dharo

A
  • Not found in conjunction with a temple as later ritual bathing areas were
  • Could be that archeologists are attaching assumptions to this piece of evidence that are ill informed by later discoveries
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14
Q

The Priest King

A
  • clover leaf associated with kingship

- Suggests theocracy

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15
Q

The language of the IVC

A
  • Not yet translated, hugh barrier to research
  • Only known from seals
  • Either proto-Dravidian, or no links at all
  • only 400 symbols - logographic? (Each symbol is a whole word)
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16
Q

What are the limitations to not knowing the language of the IVC?

A
  • Dependent on physical objects for evidence

- These are open to a variety of interpretations

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17
Q

Racial composition of the IVC

A
  • Mediterraneans
  • Alpines
  • Mongoloids
  • Proto-Australoids –> Thought to be the basic element of Harrapan culture and the Indian people at large
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18
Q

Discovery of fire pits at Harrapa in the IVC

A
  • Charred pits
  • Contained ash, animal bones
  • Some clearly constructed and purposeful
  • Clearly seperate from the domestic hearth
  • –> Possible use in Yajna ceremonies?
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19
Q

J. Fowler’s views on Temple worship in the IVC (2 points)

A
  • “no conclusive evidence”

- “Perhaps temples were not needed, and worship may have taken place in open spaces”

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20
Q

Some examples of symbolism in the seals of the IVC

A
  • Horns for power
  • Foilage from womb
  • cattle, crocodiles, rhinoceros, snakes, buffalo
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21
Q

Evidence of tree spirit in IVC

A
  • Seal with people kneeling to a tree or placing offerings under them
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22
Q

Afterlife practice in the IVC

A
  • Practices seem to have varied: Some were buried, some cremated and some buried after their bodies were exposed to the elements
  • At Lothal, opposite sex pairs buried together suggests Sati?
  • Buried with possessions, suggests some kind of afterlife belief
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23
Q

Overview of IVC beliefs?

A
  • Religion central - THEOCRACY
  • Fertility cult? - Female statue figures
  • Multiple deities worshipped - Seals
  • Ritual bathing? - The Great Bath
  • Centrality of fire rituals? - Fire pits
    BUT
  • Cannot be sure due to
    (i) Subjective interpretation of physical evidence
    (ii) Lack of language translation
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24
Q

Aryan Invasion Theory

A
  • Aryan invaders overtook between 1700-1500 BCE
  • Light skinned, illiterate, Indo-European people
  • Arrived in North West India via Iran
  • Superior warfare technology
  • May have domesticated the horse to ride?
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25
Q

Strengths of the Aryan Invasion Theory

A
  • Zoroastrianism: ‘Avesta’ scriptures of this religion in Iran is similar to the Vedas
  • Evidence from Vedas, which describe the conquering of the ‘Dasa’ by the authors - ‘Dasa’ = IVC people?
  • Explains the sudden decline
  • Explains modern tensions e.g. Brahmins vs chaotic ‘Bhakti’ tradition
  • Siva (IVC proto) worshipped by Dravidian speaking Southerners in keeping with Bhakti tradition
    • > Bhakti= IVC?
  • -> Siva = linked to IVC also?
  • —–> Aspects of IVC religion assimilated into Aryan religion? Hinduism as a COMPOSITE religion?
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26
Q

Weaknesses of Aryan Invasion Theory

A
  • No archeological evidence for invasion/migration in this period
  • -> Pottery from Ganges-Yamuna that may have been occupied by Aryans, but could also have been from local proto-historic religions
  • Cannot assume that modern Hinduism not found in the Vedas came from the IVC
  • —-> // Proto-Siva –> Siva VS Vedic Rudra –> Siva
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27
Q

Academics supporting Aryan Invasion Theory

A
  • Sir Mortimer Wheeler
  • V. P. Kanitkar
  • Owen Cole
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28
Q

Continuous Development Theory (IVC)

A
  • Aryan civilisation evolved directly from the IVC
  • No outside involvement
  • Proto-Hindu elements of IVC religion were precursors to modern Hinduism
  • Continuous development from neolithic–> Vedic period
  • IVC language was in fact Indo-European and evolved into Sanskrit
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29
Q

Strengths of Continuous Development Theory (IVC)

A
  • Supported by archeological evidence: continuity of material culture
  • Doesn’t contradict Vedas as links found to cities inhabited by Indo-European speaking people in the Bactrian region
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30
Q

Weaknesses of Continuous Development Theory (IVC)

A
  • Does not account for linguistic and religious links with Europe ie similarities between Vedas and Iranian religion which became Zoroastrianism
  • Some Vedic contradiction: describes ‘Dasa’ (Indus) cities as circular, which they weren’t
  • Asko Parpola argues for
    1) Dravidian speaking IVC culture
    2) Absence of horses/chariots in IVC
  • -> Features definitive of Aryan culture, which make it unlikely that these features evolved from the IVC
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31
Q

Academics supporting Continuous Development Theory (IVC)

A
  • L. Poliakov
  • J. G. Shaffer
  • D. Frawley
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32
Q

What does ‘Aryan’ mean?

A

Arya = noble

Sanskrit root ‘ar’ means ‘agricultralist’ but Fowler claims that ‘noble’ or ‘cultivated’ was the connotation intended

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33
Q

Evolution of the term ‘Aryan’ according to Klostermaier

A
  • First a group of languages

- Then became a racial term for people using those languages

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34
Q

Common assumption about the origins of the Aryans, now debated?

A
  • Invasion theory: Aryans arrived 1500 BCE (Folwer and Lipner prefer 2000 BCE) and established rule over dark skinned Indian natives
    BUT
  • Little archeological evidence
  • Cannot assume that non-Vedic elements of Hinduism came from IVC
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35
Q

Different views of original homeland of Aryans

A
  • Arctic Circle, Scandinavia, Ukraine, Persia, Turkey, Middle East, Central Asia
  • Fowler favours Iran due to links between Vedas and Zoroastrian Avestas
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36
Q

Social structure of Aryans

A
  • Illiterate, so scripture orally passed down

- tribal, patriarchal social structure led by male ‘Rajas’

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37
Q

Aryan settlement

A
  • Village culture; Pastoral > Urban
  • Horses and chariots for Mobility and Militarism (Hopkins)
  • Semi-nomadic
  • Settlement along Sarasvati River
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38
Q

Hopkins quote on Aryan horse-drawn chariots

A

“Mobility and Militarism” - Hopkins

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39
Q

Difference between the IVC and Aryans - A regression?

A
  • City vs Pastoral
  • Trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia vs none at all
  • Literate vs Illiterate
  • BUT Military power was with Aryans
  • Domesticated Horse and Cow
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40
Q

Economy of the Aryans

A
  • Brought Iron Age to India
  • Domesticated horse and cow
  • Metal workers, potters, reed workers, tanners, weavers, carpenters
  • Cattle rearing main occupation
  • Lack of trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia (Hopkins)
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41
Q

The structure of the Vedas

A 
The Vedas are comprised of four layers: 
(From oldest-most recent) 
1) Rig Veda
2) Sama Veda
3) Yajur Veda
4) Atharva Veda

Within each layer, there are four sub-sections:

1) Samhitas (hymns)
2) Brahmanas (rituals)
3) Aryanakas (theologies)
4) Upanishads (philosophies)

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42
Q

Origins of the Vedas

A
  • Vedas stretch back 3000 years

- Only put into writing 1000 years after origins. Printed in the 19th century by Max T. Miller

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43
Q

How do Western and Hindu attitudes to sacred texts vary?

A
  • Hindu texts weren’t written down until perhaps 1000 years after they were composed
  • Hindu ‘sacred texts’ have more fluid boundaries: The writings of holy men today are considered sacred by their worshippers
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44
Q

Why were the Vedas not written down for so long?

A
  • They are sruti and were ‘heard’ by the rishis, then past down aurally from guru to disciple
  • Writing was seen as ritually polluting: Aitareya Aranyaka (5:3:5): should not recite veda after one has “eaten flesh, seen blood…or written”
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45
Q

Why are the Vedas paradoxical according to Holm and Bowker?

A
  • Vedic knowledge as ‘authoratitive revelation’ could be said to be a characteristic implied by the term ‘Hindu’
    BUT
  • “…most Hindus would not have known their Hinduism through these revealed texts, but rather through the ritual traditions and the mythologies of smriti literature”
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46
Q

Are the Vedas exclusivist?

A
  • They are the absolute authority for Hindus, though most know ‘their’ Hinduism from smriti
  • Brahmins are the only class “qualified” to learn the texts and they are “esoteric” (Holm + Bowker)
  • Bharati claims
    (i) less than 5% of all Hindus ever knew these texts even by name
    (ii) less than 1% knew their content
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47
Q

The Rig/Rg Veda

A
  • collection (samhita) of ten books (mandalas)
  • 1028 hymns
  • Composed from as early as 1200 BCE by Bardic families
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48
Q

Sama Veda

A
  • book of songs/chants (saman) with instructions on their recitation (gana)
  • Based on Rg Veda
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49
Q

Yajur Veda

A
  • hymns and short prose for use in ritual
  • Split into black and white (krsna/sukla)
  • Black is formulae for recitation and prose
  • White is hymns and verse
50
Q

Artharva Veda

A
  • collections of hymns and magical forumlae
  • Composed around 900 BCE
  • Reflects a more popular layer of Vedic religion so not so important today
51
Q

What do the progressive layers of the Vedas indicate according to Flood?

A
  • Development of religious practice

- Sacrifice and ritual becoming increasingly complex

52
Q

Name the three classes of ritual specialists who recite the Vedic Samhitas

A
  • hotr: reciter of litanies and invocation
  • udgatr: responsible for physically executing the yajna
  • adhvaryu: chanted hymns set to melodies from the Samhitas
53
Q

Brahmanas

A
  • rules and explanations of Vedic ritual

- establishes links between ritual and cosmos

54
Q

Aryanakas

A
  • development of Brahmanas

- Speculate on the symbolism of sacrifice

55
Q

Upanishads

A
  • Continuing speculation from Brahmanas and Aryanakas
  • Known as vedanta (end of the Vedas)
  • Emergence of philosophical speculation
  • Move away from preoccupation with ritual which characterises the samhitas
  • More esoteric: name means ‘sitting near’ (a guru)
  • 11-13 major texts, but over 200 texts
56
Q

How does the Katha Upanishad’s narrative aid the worshipper in understanding key concepts in Hinduism?

A
  • Contrast of Nachiketa and and his father: Boy understands that father gains nothing in giving a cow that cannot give milk (1:3) and father responds angrily that he will give the boy to death (1:4)
  • Father tries to be renouncer yet cares for his child
  • Yama is hospitable (1:9)

For elaboration, see full essay done for homework

57
Q

Brahman/Atman in Katha Upanishad

A
  • eternal, “first cause and last refuge”
  • permeates (Jamison) “sun…air…in men, gods…” (5:2)
  • Atman as “lord of the chariot” *(Yama, 3:3)

For elaboration, see full essay done in class

58
Q

What does the Katha Upanishad suggest about the nature of the self?

A
  • formless, does not shine forth
  • source of light, whilst ego “gropes in darkness”

For elaboration, see full essay done in class

59
Q

Prakriti according to the Katha Upanishad

A
  • makes mankind forget the goal of life
  • to find reality one must look in, not out
  • we must prioritise perennial joy over passing pleasure
  • we live not by the breath, but by what causes that breath
60
Q

The Human Condition according to the Katha Upanishad

A
  • Cycle of rebirth and the pursuit of good karma (punya)
  • Whilst we pursue this merit, we are like corn that falls and comes up again
  • He who sees only multiplicity will, like water on a mountain, run off on every side
  • Must renounce not just possessions but karma itself to achieve moksha
  • Must realise all is one

For elaboration, see full essay done in class

61
Q

The importance of Karma according to the Katha Upanishad

A
  • Some are born as embodied creatures whilst others remain at a lower stage of evolution as determined by their need for growth
  • the self cannot be known by one who does not desist from righteous ways
  • However, good merit alone will not lead to Moksha, but rather neutral karma and an escape from prakriti…necessary, but not sufficient

For elaboration, see full essay done in class

62
Q

Achieving Moksha in the Katha Upanishad

A
  • freed from the jaws of death to have eternal joy
  • Cannot be attained through intellect, scholarship or one who hasn’t realised the self
  • Should not think as I or me
  • Must be achieved with meditation
  • Guru is essential: In this sense, the Katha proves its own point as it is a dialogue between guru and teacher

For elaboration, see full essay done in class

63
Q

Analogies in the Chandogya Upanishad that show all things to be one

A
  • In knowing one lump of clay, we come to know all lumps of clay
  • Rivers merging into the sea are like people forgetting their separateness
64
Q

Analogies in the Chandogya about the nature of Brahman/Atman

A
  • Bird returning to its perch to sleep is like one returning to the self
  • Strike a tree and it will live, but if the self leaves it will wither and die
  • Breaking fruit reveals seeds, breaking seeds reveals nothing…yet there is something there from which there will grow a whole tree, a ‘hidden essence’
  • Salt +water = salt water solution - the salt is invisible but still present
65
Q

Analogy in the Chandogya about the importance of seeking a guru

A
  • A blindfolded man aided on his way will find the coast with enquiries
66
Q

Brief overview of Smriti literature

A
  • Means ‘that which has been remembered’, tradition
  • Authoritative on account of their authorship by revered and important figures
  • More immediate impact than sruti and more popular
  • Narrow sense: rules
  • Wider sense: myths and legends
67
Q

Which brand of smriti literature dictates the duties and rights of Hindus?

A
  • Dharmasastras Inc. Manu Smitri
68
Q

What brand of smitri literature is comprised of myths and legends which teach important lessons?

A
  • Upanga–> Itihasa + Purana Inc. Ramanaya, Mahabharata (inc. Bhagavadgita)
69
Q

Manu Smitri

A
  • Manu is the supreme being who survived the ‘Great Flood’
  • Universal lawgiver
  • Describes creation of the world, humanity and the castes
  • Lays out the rules and laws applying to each caste
  • Ends with a description of the supreme bliss to come
70
Q

Cross over between secular and religious laws in Hinduism

A
  • Hinduism is as much a way of life as a religion so the Hindu tradition contains a range of civil and criminal laws
  • Originally, religious, civil and criminal law would have been conducted according to scripture
  • Now, as in the West, civil and criminal law is conducted by a secular court and code
71
Q

Epics: The Ramanaya

A
  • Composed by Valmiki
  • Predates mahabharata
  • Tale of Rama and Sita which is concerned with dharma
72
Q

Epics: The Mahabharata

A
  • Composed by Vyasa, complete by 4 CE
  • War between 5 Pandavas and their cousins, the Kauravas
  • Mythological, ritual and philosophical material
  • Multiple stories embedded in a larger framework eg story of Nala and Damayanti: A king who falls in love with a beautiful woman. He gambles away all he has, wonders in the forest and eventually lives happily with Damayanti
73
Q

Sanskritisation

A
  • Transition from folk tale passed on orally to written tradition
  • Puranic tradition gained stories from the big tradition and absorbed local folk tales
74
Q

What can the smriti epics tell us about India in the period?

A
  • Numerous small kingdoms
  • Hierarchical social structure
  • Ascetics seeking Moksha through yoga and asceticism
  • Personal deities becoming important
  • Importance of correct dharma (tales are models)
  • Love of oral tradition; this has evolved to now being conveyed through television and entertains a wide audience
75
Q

Epics: Bhagavadgita

A
  • Within book six of the Mahabharata
  • Technically smriti but has been called sruti (self proclaimed Bhagvadgita-Upanishad) which causes Coburn to insist that “scripture classification must be revised”
  • Rural audience prefer youthful Krishna of Bhagvad Purana

STORY:
- Krishna proposes fighting the war is the manly thing to do, that the soul is eternal and so cannot be killed, and that it is Arjuna’s personal duty (svadharma) to fight

TEACHES:
- Detachment and devotion: Participant should be detached from the fruits of their labours, which should be devoted to Krishna to attain peace

76
Q

Conflicting readings of the Bhagavadgita

A

1) Soul and UR are distinct and seperate

VS

2) Sankara’s reading that the epic propounds non-dualism

77
Q

The Puranas

A
  • Derived from Upanishads, Brahmanas and Epics
  • Includes mythologies of the avatars (Krishna)
  • Laws, creation stories
  • 18 major and 18 minor puranas
  • Overlap in content: The same myths are told differently depending on the sect’s ista deva
  • Some of the most available scripture, open to Sudras and Women

Key Dates:
Brahmanda: 350-950 CE
Visnu: 450 CE
Bhagavata: 950 CE

78
Q

Bhagavata Purana

A
  • Krishna and the Gopis

- Promotes devotion as a means to salvation

79
Q

Agamas and Tantras

A
  • Used by mainstream schools of Saiva, Vaishnav and Shakta tantras
  • 7th-11th Centuries
  • Dialogue between Siva and Shakti
  • Ritual
  • Cosmology (cosmos as emanation of sabdha)
  • Stresses divine nature of the body
  • Construction of mantras
  • A person following Tantras is a Tantrika. Initiated by a guru and regards Tantras> Vedas
  • Vedic rights not rejected, but Tantras performed additionally for more rapid liberation

NORTHERN: Monistic, used in Kashmir Saivism (Tantras)
SOUTHERN: Dualistic, used by Saiva Siddhanta (Agamas)

  • Used in ritual practice, Agamas used in personal deity worship
80
Q

Sakta Tantras (smriti)

A
  • ‘Ghora’ female deities (ie Kali, Durga) are placated with offerings
  • 5 ‘M’s: wine, flesh, fish, grain, sexual intercourse
81
Q

Klostermaier on the nature of revelation in Hinduism

Relevant to sruti texts

A
  • “Revelation is not static…central corpus of unchanging texts (Vedas)…[but] there is also fluidity and acceptance of new texts.”
  • Revelation remains a :constant and present possibility”
82
Q

What is the Purusa Sukta?

A
  • Famous Vedic hymn
  • Describes dismembering of cosmic man, Purusa in a vedic sacrifice performed by the Gods
  • Purusa is NOT Brahman, though later merged with Brahman. Purusa is simply Purusa
  • Captures immanence and transcendence: beyond space/time and only 1/4th manifested
  • Shows importance of vedic sacrifice in preservation of universe
83
Q

Purusa Sukta symbolism: The head

A
  • Moon from his mind
  • Sun from his eye
  • Indra and Agni from mouth
  • Sky from head
  • Four directions from ears
  • Brahmins from his mouth
84
Q

Purusa Sukta symbolism: The torso

A
  • Kyshatriyas from arms

- Air from his naval (belly button)

85
Q

Purusa Sukta symbolism: Lower body

A
  • Legs became common man who plies his trade (Viasha)
  • Earth came from his feet
  • Lowly self born from his feet
86
Q

Dimensions of the Purusa Sukta, abstract and literal

A
  • 1000 heads, eyes, feet…
  • Exceeded earth by 10 fingers breadth
  • 3/4 transcendent (the feet are earthly), 1/4 immanent
  • Present in three lokas (Earthly, Atmospheric, Heavenly)
87
Q

What does the Purusa sukta tell us about the Vedas and Varnas?

A
  • Verse 9 says the sacrifice created the hymns, melodies, metres, sacrificial formulas
  • 12, accounts for origins of Brahmins, Kyshatriyas, Grihasthas and Brahmacharyas
88
Q

Rodriguez on revising sruti/smriti differences

A
  • “permeable” categories
  • Epics have the “status of sruti in all but official designation:
  • “little understood by most Hindus and has marginal impact on their religious lives”
  • “smriti literature plays no less of a role”
89
Q

Devas in the Vedas

A
  • 52 deities, though commonly accepted that there were 33 major ones
  • Devas present in the three categories: Svar (heaven), Bhuvas (athmosphere), Bhur (earth)
  • Passed through boundaries, ie when devas were ‘present’ at yajna sacrifices
90
Q

Indra

A
  • An Aditya (major God)
  • God of thunder
  • From Svar realm
  • Brother of Varuna and Yama
  • Defeated Vrtra who held back the rain
  • 1/4 of hymns devoted to Indra
91
Q

Smith on the significance of the Vedic deities

A
  • Frequency with which the devas are mentioned is telling of their significance to aryan belief
92
Q

Varuna

A
  • Lord of Rta
  • Associated with Bhuvas (athmosphere)
  • Conducted work with the aid of the stars as his spies
  • Maintained Rta in partnership with man on earth conducting yajna
  • omniscient
  • 10 hymns
93
Q

Agni

A
  • Intermediary between the different realms
  • Invited Gods to bhur plain for Yajna
  • 218 hymns
  • Significant as Agni allowed the preservation of Yajna
  • 10 forms:
    1) Universal fire
    2) Digestive fire
    3) Destructive fire
    4) Sacrificial fire
    5) Domestic fire
    6) The sun
    7) Funeral fire
    8) Thunder
    9) Sacred thread ceremony fire (Upanayana)
    10) Southern fire, only used in some ceremonies
94
Q

Soma

A
  • Allowed man to connect with Devas in different realms
  • Hallucinogenic which heightened senses and allowed drinkers to “attain the light”
  • Elixr of life, bringing immortality
  • Has own Soma Mandala with 114 hymns
  • Frequently used by Indra and Agni
95
Q

Yajna

A
  • Centrepiece of Vedic religion
  • Etymological root, ‘yaj’ = to sacrifice
  • Can mean ‘antar-yajna’ (internal sacrifices in one’s mind)
  • Common meaning refers to Vedic fire sacrifice
  • Has been suggested over 400 types of sacrifice were used for different purposes
  • Performed domestically and publicly
  • Both to ask for favours (long life, good harvest) and to appease malevolent deities
96
Q

Domestic Yajna

A
  • maha-yajna
  • Performed routinely
  • Performed for Gods, all beings on ground, elders, guests, Brahmins

KEY FIGURES:

  • Priest on occasion
  • Husband and wife conduct as unit
  • Modern day, wife leads

DAILY SACRIFICES:
- Homa: Cooked food for Agni and Prajapati (creator) in morning and Surya (sun god) and Prajapati in the evening

THE FIVE GREAT SACRIFICES; Panca Mahayajna

  • PART OF DAILY SACRIFICES*
  • Cooked food in household fire to Gods
  • Food offered on the ground on behalf of all beings
  • Water/food sprinkled with water thrown into the air for the fathers
  • Food offered to guests, priests beggars…
  • Verbal offering with recitation of Vedic hymns

SEASONAL SACRIFICES

  • New moon/full moon
  • Seasonal
  • First fruits of harvest

SAMSKARAS:
- Conception, initiation, marriage, death…

97
Q

Role of Brahmins in Vedic rituals

A
  • Employed to ensure ceremony conducted properly
  • Sanskrit is divine language, so mantras innately sacred rather than describing that which was. Therefore Brahmins key to ensuring that they were recited properly
  • Specialist knowledge of the content was exclusive to Brahmins so their role was central
  • Has been argues that caste system was originally dominated by kshatriyas, and that Brahmins came to dominate through their role in Yajna
  • Ritual became more complex over time so they were needed more
98
Q

Public Yajna

A
  • Srauta-yajna
  • Performed on key dates in Vedic calendar (eclipses, new years)

KEY FIGURES:

  • Hotr (Reciters)
  • Udgatr (Chanters)
  • Adhvaryu (Officiators)
  • Brahmin (Overseer)

BENEFACTORS:
- Rich patrons who received they would receive punya

FIRES: Three, specific shapes and orientation with compass

  • Garhapatya: earth, prepare food
  • Ahavaniya: sky, fire of offering
  • Daksina: athmosphere, ward off evil
  • Vedi: grass lined pit for utensils when not in use
99
Q

Klostermaier’s claims on Yajna as a scientific discipline

A
  • Yajna was treated as an exact science and required a high level of astrological understanding
100
Q

Materials required for Yajna

A 
Materials: 
- melted butter
- grains
- soma juice 
- animals (ashvamedha = horse sacrifice) 
- Humans (purushamedha)
- Monetary equivalent of sacrifices 
Fires: 
- sacrificial litter 
- sacrificial altar 
Utensils
People (Hotr, Udhatr, Adhvaryu, Brahmin)
101
Q

Why might Yajna be considered a hospitality ritual?

A
  • Inviting the ista-deva to join the worshippers at the fire sacrifice
102
Q

Purposes of Yajna

A
  • To attain good afterlife in Vedic times
  • Power in its own right
  • Maintaining cosmic order
  • Pragmatic
  • Maintaining order in the family
103
Q

Jaimini’s contribution to Vedic ritual

A
  • Standardised form by him in his Purva-mimansa-sutras
104
Q

Voluntary vs Obligatory rites

A
  • Procuring special favours
  • business decisions, birth of son…
    VS
  • Rites performed because they had to be out of respect for Gods
105
Q

Difference between Vedic worship and worship today

A
  • Standardised Vedic worship was not later considered spir
  • Upanisads (800-600 BCE) were helpful for intelligencia
  • Epics (400-50 BCE) were central to many
106
Q

Yajna: Medha

A
  • Medha is power of sacrifice
  • Depended on type of sacrifice and on offerings and proper execution
  • Human or horse sacrifice very powerful, but substitutes (including money) used
  • Brahmin hired for proper officiation
107
Q

Vedas are the only true source of Hinduism: Yes?

A
  • Foundation of Aryan/Ivc belief
  • Sruti status
  • Precursor to modern Gods
  • Centrality of Yajna
  • Inspired theological/philosophical insight (the Vedantas)
  • Only true source for Brahmins?
  • Dayananda Sarasvati’s movement, Arya Samaj, rejects all later accretions to Hinduism
108
Q

Vedas are the only true source of Hinduism: No?

A
  • Flood: Hinduism is a misnomer when considering whether the Vedas “as authoritative revelation could be said to be a characteristic implied by the term ‘Hindu’.” Most wouldn’t associate sruti with ‘their’ Hinduism
  • Rodriguez: Epics enjoy smriti status in all but official designation, they aren’t that important any more and are understood by few
  • Smriti: Law codes and Epics
  • Bharati:
109
Q

Aryans greatly influenced later religion: Yes?

A
  • Sruti
  • Dayananda Sarasvati: Vedas are benchmark of authentic Hinduism
  • Proto Gods (Rudra–> Siva)
  • Vedas introduced key ideas
  • Vedas/Upanishads propounded idea of one reality behind many (Sakara)
  • Caste system
  • Samskaras, all 16, still practiced
  • Centrality of Yajna/Havan/Homa
110
Q

Aryans have greatly influenced later religion: No?

A
  • Bhakti movement
  • Smriti literature
  • Hindu reformers, rejection of Caste system
  • Contentious link between Vedic/modern Gods (Rudra/Siva)
  • Belief in reincarnation came later
111
Q

Bhakti poets

A

Mirabai

Tulsidas

112
Q

Max Muller’s definitions of God

A
  • Henotheism

- Kathenotheism

113
Q

The Vedangas: Smriti

A

Understanding these texts is a pre-requisite to understanding the Vedas. They cover phonetics, metre, grammar, etymology…

114
Q

Upavedas: Smriti

A
  • Foundational texts for much of Indias society
  • Cover warfare, arts+sciences,
  • Architecture, Military, Medicine, Music and Art
115
Q

Upanga (smriti)

A
  • Covers dharma
  • Dharma shastras cover laws of dharma for householders, ritual, a dharmic life
  • Itihasa puranas on creation, evolution, time, kings, theology, endtimes
116
Q

Darsana (smriti)

A
  • Windows to truth
  • Philosophies, medaphysical speculation
  • Written by sages, see Vedas as authoratitive
  • Written on Brahman, yoga, rites/rituals…
117
Q

Smriti on the four goals of human life

A

Dharma: These texts discuss dharma from various religious, social, duties, morals and personal ethics perspective. Each of six major schools of Hinduism has its own literature on dharma. Examples include Dharma-sutras (particularly by Gautama, Apastamba, Baudhayana and Vāsiṣṭha) and Dharma-sastras (particularly Manusmṛti, Yājñavalkya Smṛti, Nāradasmṛti and Viṣṇusmṛti). At personal dharma level, this includes many chapters of Yogasutras.

Artha: Artha-related texts discuss artha from individual, social and as a compendium of economic policies, politics and laws. For example, the Arthashastra of Kauṭilya, the Kamandakiya Nitisara,[15] Brihaspati Sutra,[16] and Sukra Niti.[17] Olivelle states that most Artha-related treatises from ancient India have been lost.[18]

Kama: These discuss arts, emotions, love, erotics, relationships and other sciences in the pursuit of pleasure. The Kamasutra of Vātsyāyana is most well known. Others texts include Ratirahasya, Jayamangala, Smaradipika, Ratimanjari, Ratiratnapradipika, Ananga Ranga among others.[19]

Moksha: These develop and debate the nature and process of liberation, freedom and spiritual release. Major treatises on the pursuit of moksa include the later Upanishads (early Upanishads are considered Sruti literature), Vivekachudamani, Bhagavad Gita, and the sastras on Yoga.

118
Q

Significance of Agni for development of belief about God in the Vedas

A
  • Agni significant as fire was significant. Fire like a living thing as you must feed it or it will die
  • “You, o Agni, are the bull of all that exists”
  • shift from Monotheism to PANTHEISM - one contingent underlying reality
119
Q

Significance of Vac for development of belief about God in the Vedas

A
  • Vac or “speech” divine as Sanskrit is a divine language that is a symbol, not a sign pointing to another distinct reality
  • “Holy utterance is measured in four quarters; wise brahmanas know these. The three that are set down in secret they do not bring into movement”
  • Suggests Vac is not just everything, but is transcendant too. Move from Pantheism –> Monotheism
  • Upanisads are philosophical speculation in light of this distinction. They talk about this unknowable self
120
Q

How did belief about God/UR develop in the Vedas

A
  • Polytheism, with some Henotheism
    (Agni) –> Pantheism
    (Vac) –> Monotheism
    (Upanisads) –> Impersonal monotheism
121
Q

Vedas in practice today

A
  • Fire hearths are still used and fire remains central to samskara rituals such as marriage and death but may also be made so that rituals can be conducted e.g. in order to ensure a good harvest or to bless a business or to facilitate a bathing ritual on pilgrimage. Vedic deities such as the sun and Agni are invoked at samskaras such as marriage and death.
  • Priests are still central to temple and other forms of public worship. Only they know the Vedic verses appropriate to each ceremony and the correct rituals. Years are spent learning how to recite and intone the Vedic texts precisely. A single mistake of word, pronunciation or pitch will make a ritual’s effect void.
  • Verses (slokas) from the Vedas are chanted at samskaras such as upanayana, marriage and death ceremonies. Although the Sanskrit may not be understood by the audience it is repeated by the chief worshipper - prompted by the priest - and is thought to be powerful in its own right. It does not need to be understood by the mind, it has deep spiritual effect beyond our understanding.
  • AUM from Katha still aids meditation and therfore jnana yoga
122
Q

Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905),

A

Debendranath Tagore (1817-1905), however, opposed this emphasis on the importance of the Vedas on the Vedic grounds that their use excluded the non-dvijas from Hinduism.

RELIGIOUS STUDIES A2 (10 decks)

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