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RELIGIOUS STUDIES A2 > Hindu Dharma > Flashcards

Hindu Dharma Flashcards

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1
Q

Give some meanings of the word ‘dharma’

A
  • Order
  • Duty
  • Purpose
  • ‘That which supports’
  • Way of life
  • Sanatana dharma = Hinduism
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2
Q

What is the purpose of dharma?

A
  • Proper functioning of universe
  • Helps you obtain moksha through adhering to your dharma
  • to honour a God (God may come to restore dharma, C.f.
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3
Q

How does dharma relate to rta?

A
  • Natural order in the Vedic religion
  • Order in the cosmos
  • “That which is properly joined: order, rule, truth”
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4
Q

Which texts support Dharma?

A 
VEDAS 
- Upanishads 
- Dharma sastras 
- Laws of Manu/Manusmirtri 
BHAKTI 
- Bhagvad Gita 
- Mahabharata
- Puranas (Brahmapurana)
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5
Q

Dharma in the Bhagvad Gita

A
  • Arjuna argues that in fighting leading men, fathers and husbands, he will destabilise families who in turn help to uphold dharma (origins of ahimsa paramo dharma)
  • Krishna argues that above dharma is God, and God desires the path each person is obligated to take. Therefore the right thing to do is to do your own dharma

“One’s own dharma, performed imperfectly, is better than another’s dharma well performed” - Lord Krishna

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6
Q

What is varnashrama dharma?

A
  • The dharma determined by your caste and ashram
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7
Q

Dharma of Brahmin

A
  • to lead worship, to conduct ritual, to learn the vedas
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8
Q

Dharma of a Kshatriya

A
  • to govern
  • to fight
  • to protect
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9
Q

Dharma of a Vaishya

A
  • to offer service

- to make money

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10
Q

Dharma of a Sudra

A
  • to provide labour, often lowly
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11
Q

Dharma of a Brahmacharya

A
  • to learn
  • to learn vedas
  • to follow a guru
  • to respect elders
  • remain celibate
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12
Q

Dharma of a Grihastha

A
  • to earn money
  • to raise a family, Laws of Manu offer advise on when to conceive a child to ensure male heir
  • to work
  • to support society
  • to worship
  • Men: to support family
  • Women: to raise the children and take on a domestic role
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13
Q

Dharma of a Vanaprastha

A
  • remain celibate
  • renounce responsibilities of a householder
  • devote oneself to God
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14
Q

Dharma of a Sannyasini

A
  • Renouncer of all worldly pleasures
  • Outside of caste system
  • Worship through meditation (jnana yoga) and bhakti yoga
  • Dead to the world
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15
Q

What is your Sva-dharma

A
  • Your personal dharma
  • Extremely individual, likely to be unique
  • Determined by your caste, ashram, jati, sex…
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16
Q

Sadharan dharma

A

Two types:

  • Generalised dharma*
  • Moral obligations
  • Do not murder, steal, lie ect. ect.
  • respect vedas, Brahmins, elders
  • Beyond the call of duty*
  • Construction of temples
  • Alms to priests
  • Pursuit of divine knowledge
  • Pilgrimage
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17
Q

Pande on relationship between dharma and rta

A
  • Dharma replaced Rta
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18
Q

What does Sanatana dharma mean?

A
  • From an emic perspective, Sanatana dharma is the title given to the religion Westerners know as ‘Hinduism’ (the title ‘Hinduism’ is only appropriate from an etic perspective
  • From Sanskrit route ‘dhri’ = to sustain, ‘anandi’ = beginingless, ‘anantha’ = endless. It is therefore a-paurusheya = without a human founder
  • Cannot be translated into any other language directly
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19
Q

Sanatana dharma: what is implied by the term ‘Sanatana’?

A
  • literally means eternal
  • Since only Brahman is beyond time, it must come from Brahman
  • This means that the religion is God centred, not prophet centred
  • Vaidika dharm= from the Vedas, which came from Brahman
  • It is both immanent and transcendent
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20
Q

What are some qualities of Sanatana dharma?

A
  • Not prophet-based, but god-based
  • Eternal
  • Experience-lead, not word-led
  • Universally inclusive
  • Without ideological or sectarian division: unity
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21
Q

Aligning with Sanatana dharma

A
  • Sanatana dharma is the natural law that aligns with Brahmans wishes
  • Living in accordance with that will sustain and uplift all life and maximise human potential in all dimensions
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22
Q

Gravity as an analogy for explaining the universal and unified Sanatana dharma

A
  • Gravity works in all times and places in the same way for everyone
  • It is not open to debate or interpretation. It clearly exists and cannot be altered or manipulated
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23
Q

Juilius Evola’s comments on dharma

A
  • meta-historic and dynamic

- principles that have the chrism of superior legitimacy

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24
Q

What is the difference between Sanatana Dharma and Sampradya?

A
  • Sampradya is a set of laws taught by a Guru
  • Sanatana dharma is present in these ideologies, but existed before/is perennial (“To the truth which is one, the wise give many names”)
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25
Q

Impact of the Vedas on Sanatana Dharma

A
  • Vedic philosophy helps us to understand who we are and live appropriately to that
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26
Q

Sanatana dharma general principles: The three Ds of Hindu ethics

A

Dana: Giving others their due
Daya: Respect for creatures
Dharma: order, obeying dharmic principles

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27
Q

According to Hindu ethics, to whom should you pay your debts?

A

Rishis: an inspired poet of Ṛgvedic hymns, who alone or with others invokes the deities with poetry. Post-Vedic tradition regards the Rishis as “sages” or saints.

Pitris: departed ancestors who are remembered annually

Devas: the god of choice (ista deva)

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28
Q

Some general principles of Sanatana Dharma

A 
ahimsa (non-violence) 
dhriti (firmness or fortitude),
 kshama (forgiveness), 
dama (self-control), 
asteya (refraining from stealing or dishonesty),
 shauch (purity), 
indriya nigraha (control over the senses),
 dhih (intellect), 
vidya (knowledge),
 satyam (truth)
 akrodhah (absence of anger).
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29
Q

Difference in scale between Varnashrama dharma and Sanatana dharma

A
  • SD has a universal scale and is concerned with universal order (Rta), applies to macrocosm
  • VAD applies to human society and human condition, applies to microcosm
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30
Q

Difference in inclusiveness between VAD and SD

A
  • SD specifies universal laws applicable to all ie ahimsa. Alll people equal before SD, including those who don’t identify as ‘Hindus’
  • VAD is specialised, in most cases unique. Heirachical and strictly Vedic (excludes other faiths, women and sudras)
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31
Q

Difference in aims for SD and VAD

A
  • SD: SD is set out by Brahman, is eternal and universal. Living by SD is living by God, and the ultimate aim is to achieve moksha and realise God
  • VAD: gain punya (merit) for good karma and better rebirth
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32
Q

Defining SD

A
  • Emic: the religion we know as ‘Hinduism’ is SD
  • Etic: the religion that is SD is known by us as ‘Hinduism’
  • Nationalists use term ‘Hindutva’ or ‘Hinduness’ to associate it with India as the homeland of Hinduism (challenges idea of universal SD)
  • Dayananda Sarasvati saw true Hinduism as being strictly Vedic
  • Ghandi had own understanding of SD: belief in Hindu scripts, avatars ,Vedic VAD but NOT VAD in modern sense. Cow protection, humanitarianism, no idol worship…
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33
Q

Sanatana Dharma - attaining Moksha - Karma Yoga

A
  • Achieving Moksha through good works and becoming detached from the fruits of our labours
  • Not just gaining good karma, but achieving a state of neutral Karma
  • Devote fruits to Ishvara (Lord) ie Krishna in Mahabharata
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34
Q

Sanatana Dharma - attaining Moksha - Jnana Yoga

A
  • path of intellectual development
  • Must identify what is real and what is not, distinguish between material and absolute reality (for Sankara)
  • Revealed knowledge of the soul, God and the relationship between them
  • Not intellectual knowledge, as this is relevant only to material reality and does not relate to atman. Knowledge gained through meditation
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35
Q

Sanatana Dharma - attaining Moksha - Bhakti Yoga

A
  • Attaining Moksha through devotion to the Lord

- God’s love present in all living beings + his work as creator. Therefore, easiest means of liberation

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36
Q

Drowning scorpion proverb to expliain SD

A
  • Dharma of man to save scorpion
  • Dharma of scorpion to sting
  • Shows inclusive and universal nature of SD
37
Q

Lord Krishna quote on Sva Dharma

A
  • “Greater is thine own work, even if this be humble, than the work of another, if this be great”
38
Q

Jati Dharma

A

-jāti-dharma means the family tradition that has got different types of responsibilities.
(Lecture on Bhagavad-Gita—1:41-42).
- Families have distinctive trade groups, 1000s. Surname retained to identify with others in that jati (ie Ghandi means ‘grocer’
- “On destruction of the family, perennial family dharmas perish” - Krishna
–> If you don’t follow trade and tradition, order will be disrupted

39
Q

Why is marriage so important in Hinduism?

A
  • Most important Samskara
  • Dharma of grihastha to have children
  • Duty of male to marry and continue family line
  • Right of passage for girl entering womanhood. Transition from Brahmacharya–> Grihastha. Girls equivalent of the male’s upanayaya ceremony
    In Scripture:
  • Mahavishnu (the supreme God)
  • Lakshmi (the supreme Goddess)
  • Krishna and Radha
  • Rama and Sita
40
Q

Choosing a partner in marriage

A
  • must be from a respectable family
  • Appropriate caste/jati/educational background
  • Geo-political benefit
  • ‘The father should give his daughter to a handsome husband while she is a child. If not, sin falls upon him” (Brahmapurana)
41
Q

Difference between Western and Hindu marriages

A
  • Hindu marriages are arranged, pragmatic and for geo-political purposes
  • Homosexuality and pre-marital sex are unacceptable
    VS
  • Love marriage
  • Increasing liberties though still some homophobia (37 states have same-sex marriage)
  • Pre marital sex is generally acceptable
42
Q

Manusmitri quote on the importance of the householder

A

“Just as all creatures exist depending on air, so do all the asramas depend on the Householder…his order is the highest”

“the most excellent one [ashram]”

43
Q

Namah quote on the significance of marriage

A

“The most important [ samskara ] …is marriage”

44
Q

India’s divorce rate VS USA’s divorce rate

A
  • 1.1% vs 48.5%

- Doesn’t neccesarily suggest happy marriage?

45
Q

Why is marriage a tool for social mobility in modern India?

A
  • Bride takes caste of groom

- If bride is kshatriya, she becomes a brahmin

46
Q

Dharma of marriage

A
  • Father’s dharma to ensure that children married off to respectable families
  • Children’s dharma to respect wishes of their elders and betters
47
Q

Namah on sex and marriage

A

“marriage enables one to satisfy one’s emotional and physical needs in a religious and socially acceptable way”

“the institution of marriage is essential for the procreation and continuation of life”

48
Q

Marriage as a social norm in Hindu society

A
  • Dating back to bhakti traditon, marriage integral
  • Marriage is linked to status of woman in family
  • To be middle aged an unmarried is unusual
49
Q

Marriage as symbolic (Holm + Bowker)

A

“Expresses at an interpersonal level Hinduism’s transpersonal reality”

50
Q

Laws of Manu on cross-caste relations

A

“A Brahmana who takes a Sudra wife to bed will sink into hell; if he begets a child by her, he will lose his rank as a Brahmana”

51
Q

JP Morgan on wider implications of Vivaha

A

not only union of two people, but of two families

52
Q

India’s ‘love revolution’?

A
  • Jat tribal council lifts ban on inter-caste marriage

- Love marriages sometimes occuring

53
Q

Percentage of students supporting arranged marriage?

A
  • 65% believed decision lies with parents
54
Q

Is Vedic, intra-caste marriage sustainable?

A
  • Dvijas are small proportion of population

- 940:1000 boys/girls

55
Q

Polygamy then and now

A
  • In Vedic times, practice for infertile wife to resign her place (Morgan)
  • Now under Hindu Marriage Act 1955 polygamy is no longer acceptable
56
Q

Divorce in Hindu Marriage -

A
  • Medha: Better for a wife to remain unhappily married than divorce and be alientated
  • Strong community pressure against re-marriage
  • In remarriage, ceremonies are shortened or ommited altogether
57
Q

Widowhood in Hindu marriage

A
  • Widowhood has been described as “social death” (web source)
  • Vedic practice was Sati or ‘ritual burning’
  • Widows still expected to mourn until the end of their lives or enter an ashram. May continue to raise the children or seek enlightenment
  • Dependence on husband’s family
  • Wear plain white sari and no jewelry
  • Sati prohibited in 1829 thanks to work of Ram Rohan Roy and British
  • Brah
  • Some progress, but women may remain as marginalised as they did in Vedic times
58
Q

Arranged marriage

A
  • Marriage so important for dharma of parents, children and both families, decision left to parents
  • Young adults/children not responsible enough to select a suitable partner as many things to consider aside from love
  • Parents had sometimes jeprodised children’s futures by selecting unsuitable partner for geo-political purposes, but most take care (Morgan)
  • 65% still believe parents have power to make decision
  • Now children have ‘power of veto’ in some cases (Morgan)
59
Q

Birth control and abortion in Hinduism

A
  • No ban
  • Dharma of grihastha to procreate, so contraception not usually used
  • Abortion violates ahimsa so generally unacceptable, but treated on case-by-case basis
60
Q

Marriage rituals

Kings Have Amazing Sofa Cushions

A
  • Used to be several days, now just one
  • No formal registration, as marriage approved by society represented by those present
  • geneology (gotra) publically announced to certify marriage
  • sari and shawl/scarf are joined as they walk
  • Walk around sacred fire, groom speaks text which stresses importance of establishing a new familt (let us beget offspring”
  • KANYADAN: Girl’s parents ‘give her away’ to groom
  • HASTGRAHANA: holding hands for first time
  • AGNI PARIKRAMA: Seven steps are taken before sacred fire (Agni). They perambulate the fire four times, three led by bride, one by groom. This is to protect the bride for first 7 years by the moon, the next 7 by the sun, and the next 7 by Agni
  • SAPTAPADI: 7 steps around the fire to wish for food, strength, family, prosperity, progeny (descendents), happiness, friendship and performance of religious rites
  • COHABITATION: Bride taken to new environment

Morgan: Step by step familiarisation of spouses

61
Q

Death rituals in Hinduism

A
  • cremation most common ritual, but newborn/infants are buried
  • White saris worn
  • On 12th day of mourning, ritual cleansing and mourners can return to normal clothes
  • Funeral ceremony is final sanskara and a family responsibility
  • Corpse is shaved, bathed and dressed in new clothes. Sandal paste put on forehead and leaf from holy tulsi plant is plased alongside coin in mouth
  • Son lights funeral pyre
  • Annual commemoration of death. First anniversary especially significant as it takes Yama one year to work out the deceased’s karma
62
Q

Stri Dharma in the Laws of Manu

A
  • Very contradictory
  • They instruct a woman to be devoted to her husband, but also say that she should be equal and treated like a goddess
  • Called temptresses and seductresses
  • “domestic duties parallel to man’s rituals”
63
Q

Upanishads on female/general equality

A
  • “sex cannot be seen as the determining factor in human relationships - each individual has worth because of the Atman or Self in her or him, regardless of sex, colour, race, class or creed”
64
Q

Stri dharma as a wife and mother

A
  • Should bring up good offspring
  • Should conduct puja in the home
  • Should adopt husband’s family as her own, and respect his relatives
  • Preserve the house and husband
65
Q

Status of women

A
  • Equal to men in Upanishads
  • Shakti created from femenine aspects of the divine, so respected in that sense
  • Traditionally submissive: “A husband must always be served like a God by a good wife”
  • Daughters inferior to sons, merely temporary members of a family to be given away as a gift (dana)
  • Girls aborted in favour of sons - contentious issue
66
Q

What issues are women in India facing?

A
  • Female infanticide: 7 000 000 fewer girls than boys under 6
  • Finding suitable partner in marriage
  • Divorce
  • Widowhood
67
Q

Fowler on a woman’s social capabilities

A
  • “The average woman is not expected or considered able to shoulder public or social responsibility”
68
Q

Symbolic female goddesses

A
  • Maternal: Gana Ma/Bharat Ma (mother of Ganges/India)
  • Durga and Kali: destroyers of evil. Fearsome, necklace of skulls and 10 hands for 10 weapons, but symbol of mudra (do not fear, I will protect you)
  • Spouse: Parvarti/Siva, Lakshmi/Vishnu, Sarasvati/Brahma
  • Learning: Sarasvati goddess of learning, Lakshmi has coins pouring from her hands (intellectual knowledge/jnana yoga)
69
Q

Women and domestic responsibilities in India

A
  • Responsible for organising fasts and preparing food
  • Bathe before preparation
  • Some only eat leftovers of men like prasad not eaten by a murti as women should treat husband like god (L.o.M.) shows that despite kitchen being restricted to all but women the are still inferior

PUJA:

  • As head of household, woman conducts puja
  • Creates and maintains murti shrines and home temples
70
Q

Can woman achieve high status in India?

A
  • Some advanced women: Indira Gandhi, twice prime minister of India before assasination in 1984
    BUT
  • Fowler: “for the average Hindu women, particularly in rural areas, life revolves around the family…”
71
Q

Evidence of female submissiveness in orthodox Hinduism

A
  • Must remain celibate until marriage consummated
  • Given away as gift at the end of their time in birth family as a temporary member
  • Not allowed to attract other men, seen as source of problem: “it is the nature of women to seduce’
  • man allowed to remarry, woman is not
72
Q

The structure of the Hindu family

A
  • Extended family
  • When a woman marries, she leaves her family and joins her husband’s
  • Hierarchical, duty of care and reverence for elders
  • Nieces and Nephews are considered Sons/Daughters, Aunts and Uncles are Mothers/Fathers
  • Pitris (spirits of departed ancestors) are remembered annually
73
Q

What are the advantages of an extended family?

A
  • Lessens pressure of responsibilities on all members as duties shared
  • Child raised in extended family learns respect, cooperation…
  • Older generation cared for and able to impart wisdom
74
Q

Are Vedic tradition and modern ideas about Vivaha out of line with each other

A
  • rise in love marriages, reciprocal attachment is seen as
  • More liberal attitude to inter-caste marriage
  • Dayananda Sarasvati’s arguments against the caste system, child marriages (1955 Hindu Marriage Act, legal age of marriage 18 yrs)
  • house members down from 6 to 4=VS
  • 90% still arranged
  • honour killings to defend Vedic marriage
  • many of eight marriage types referenced in Manusmitri are still used today, and those frowned upon are still taboo
  • Saptapadi still most important part of ritual
  • Expectations of procreation/childrearing are still crucial
  • Low abortion and divorce rates
75
Q

Are Vedic and modern ideals of Grihastha dharma unaligned?

A
  • India has very low divorce rate (1.01%) but one of the fastest growing (increase 100% 2006-2011)
  • Feminist movement advocates education for women and liberty to move on from abusive/ended marriages
  • More working women in India (1%-15% in 1 decade)
76
Q

Children’s position in the family

A
  • Love, trust and respect parents
  • Learn from elders
  • Follow dharma of the brahmacharya
  • Proverb: treat son like a king for first 5 years, then a slave for the next 10, then a friend
  • Sons spoiled more than daughters by mothers, as mother’s position depends on ability to produce high quality male heir
77
Q

Manusmitri on honouring women

A
  • Where women are honoured, the gods are pleased. But where they are not, sacred rites yield no rewards
78
Q

Manusmitri - anti-feminist?

A
  • Day and night women must be kept under control by the males in their family
  • “a woman is never fit for independence”
  • “for if they are not guarded, they will bring trouble on two families”
79
Q

% of Brahmins in India

A
  • 3/4%
80
Q

Points of familiarity between SD/VAD

A
  • Ethical code
  • Two different means to the same end, Moksha
  • VAD is part of SD, the Hindu tradition
  • Dayananda Sarasvati: exclude those from SD who are nastika (who do not accept the vedas as supreme) . Both are exclusivist
81
Q

Differences between SD/VAD

A
  • SD is universal, VAD is worldly
  • SD is transcendant, VAD is human
  • SD is absolute divine truth, VAD only applies to Hindus
  • SD may conflict with obligations of VAD (Krishna and Arjuna)
  • SD is absolute, VAD is dynamic for men and women
82
Q

do SD and VAD conflict? Overall conclusion?

A
  • DO conflict
  • VAD incoroporates SD BUT….
  • VAD specific to Hinduism, but SD is will of God and of God, so may incorporate other religions too.
  • –> Too different!
83
Q

Section 375 Indian Penal Code

A

Section 375 of the Indian Penal Code, which defines rape, says that “sexual intercourse by man with his own wife, the wife not being under 15 years of age, is not rape.”

84
Q

Hindu marriage controversy June 5th 2015 - Child marriage

A

The marriage of a 16-year-old girl with a 34-year-old man was stopped by the timely intervention of officials at Pallipalayam

85
Q

Hindu Marriage Bill 2015

A
  • 18 yr minium age
  • not divorce but ‘annulment’ of marriage
  • Registration of marriages (previously not required as marriages considered registered in eyes of God?)
86
Q

Sex ratio in India (2009)

A

1.06 male(s)/female (2009 est.)

87
Q

Traditional stridharma

A
  • Submissive + Obedient
  • See to domestic concerns
  • Dress plainly when husband is away
  • Be truthful and pleasing, control passions
  • However powerful in later life when tasked with giving council to family members
88
Q

Marriages in the LOM

A
  • by seduction of a woman sleeping (antifeminist)
  • to a brahman learned in vedas (only 3%)
  • for sexual pleasure (love marriage now discouraged)
  • wife married off in exchange for goods, a cow or bull (antifeminist)
  • wife captured after siege (unaligned)
89
Q

Did women initially hold a high position in vedic culture?

A

Interesting to note that opinion of females has worsened over times - the Samhitas seem to say that women are able to undergo the upanayana ceremony and have much more choice in selecting a marriage partner than in later Hinduism
Some of the mandalas of Rig-Veda attributed to female rsis

RELIGIOUS STUDIES A2 (10 decks)

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