Organisations Movements Members Flashcards
Churches and Sects
Weber (1920) made the original distinction between two different types of religious organisations – churches and sects
within Christianity.
However, it was his friend Ernst Troeltsch (1931), who developed these distinctions further. Sects can
be seen as a small religion that has broken away from the official established mainstream church of society, often due
to the differences in the interpretation of religious teachings. Although the definition of ‘church’ by Weber and Troeltsch
was originally based on Western Christian organisations, it can still be applicable to other faiths and in other countries
that share similar characteristics of a ‘church’.
Churches
Examples * Christianity: Church of England (England); Roman Catholics Church (Italy, Spain); Orthodox Church
(Greece, Cyprus).
Structure * A large organisation that has a formal hierarchical and bureaucratic structure with paid officials (e.g. in the
Catholic religion the Pope heads a pyramid of cardinals, archbishops, bishops and priests).
Size * Size of church membership tends to be the very large; the largest religious organisational type, e.g. millions of
people.
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Membership * Membership is inclusive, meaning it is open to all types of people and who are from all social backgrounds.
Members are predominately born into the church or self-recruited by conversion.
* Churches tend to have a particular link to the socially powerful people/upper classes. For instance, the Queen
and the Church of England.
Commitment * Makes few demands on its members – it is possible to be a member without ever attending collective worship
(becoming a member usually means no drastic life change). However, the church encourages regular attendance and
involvement.
View of society * Accepts the main values and norms of society. Often seen as the ‘official religion’ of the state—country (e.g. the
Queen being the head of state and of the Church of England). Often integrated into the social, moral and the
economic structure of society.
View of other
beliefs/religions
- Believes it has a monopoly on truth (their teachings are the only ones that are true, and theirs is the only
legitimate religion). They do not accept other religions as being true. - Its beliefs and values are accepted by the majority of the population.
Sects
Examples * Christianity: Jehovah witnesses; Unification Church (the Moonies); Amish; Peoples Temple; Branch Davidians; Quaker
Structure * There is often no hierarchal structure or paid officials, but it is more egalitarian in structure, usually under the
control of a single influential and charismatic leader.
Size * Membership size tends to be small.
- The lifespan of sects can be short-lived (possibly until the leader dies).
Membership * Membership is exclusive – entry criteria is tight, possibly through personal recommendation. Sects often
require very strong commitment from their members. They see themselves as an ‘exclusive group’ – which
usually requires a change or to withdraw from a current lifestyle.
Commitment * A high level of commitment is required. People who join tend to be from the lower working class (the poor), the
oppressed and the marginalised.
View of society * Sects often reject society and the state. They are often in conflict with/hostile to/disapproving of society’s
values and norms and aim to replace them with alternative beliefs and practises.
* They can be anti-establishment and anti-authority, and are therefore often viewed as a deviant religious
organisation.
View of other
beliefs/religions
- They may make absolute truth claims on religious beliefs (monopoly over truth claims), and are not accepting
of other religions/beliefs.
Denominations
Examples * Christianity: Baptist Church, Methodist Church, Pentecostal Church.
Structure * Quite a large organisation that has a formal hierarchal and bureaucratic structure with paid officials, although
they often also have unpaid or lay preachers.
Size * Size of membership tends to be large.
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Membership * Membership is inclusive which means it is open to all types of people or through family tradition.
Denominations often have members from working-class and lower-middle-class backgrounds.
Commitment * They may require restrictions on their member’s behaviour (e.g. no alcohol or gambling). They tend to require
more commitment than a church. Some expect their members to go out and evangelise in the community, e.g.
as with the Pentecostal faith.
View of society * Generally, they accept the main values and norms of society. Denominations are not linked to the state. They may
have some minor differences in values with mainstream society but are not confrontational.
View of other
beliefs/religions
- Many tend not to claim a monopoly over the truth, while others do (Pentecostals). Denominations are tolerant
of other religions and beliefs.
Cults
Examples * Scientology, Christian Science, and Transcended Meditation
Structure * A cult is small and loosely organised; no formal hierarchical structure or paid officials.
- Tend to be led by practitioners, therapists or guru types leaders
Size * The size of membership tends to be very small.
* The lifespan of the cult tends to be short-lived.
Membership * Membership is inclusive which means it is open to all types of people, usually the young middle-class.
Commitment * Very loose commitments and demands are made on the individual.
View of society * Cults accept the values and norms of mainstream society.
- They tend to focus on the attributes of individuals rather than society, such as self-improvement, to become
more fulfilled and whole within the demands of modern lifestyles
View of other
beliefs/religions
- Cults do not claim to have a monopoly on the truth, and are therefore tolerant of other religious faiths.
Members may also belong to other religious faiths at the same – a blending of ideas
Ways to separate cults from sects according to Stark and Bainbridge (1985) are:
◦ Sects are usually a breakaway movement from a church whereas cults often are not. Sects tend to focus on religious ideas
whereas cults tend to focus on the individual’s personal growth (e.g. spiritually, emotionally, socially and physically). Others
tend to have a more mystical element focusing on the matters of the universe (e.g. astral projection).
◦ Sects believe have a monopoly on the truth, whereas cults believe their teachings are just one of many paths to the truth.
The definition of ‘church’ is no longer applicable
One limitation of the definition of ‘church’ is it is no longer useful in modern society, and it is more
appropriate in describing pre-modern Christian societies. This is because the many competing interpretations
of Christianity in the UK, and the development of religious pluralism (many different religions), means the
Church of England is no longer able to command universal loyalty, as there is no longer one single set of
beliefs which is reinforced by all groups in society.
The definition of ‘church’ is more applicable to non-Christian countries
The definition of ‘church’ by Troeltsch was based on Western Christian organisations. Some argue that with
western societies becoming more secular, the definition of ‘church’ will eventually no longer be applicable to
Christian societies in the West . Arguably it is more appropriate to some modern non-Christian countries, as
they demonstrate more characteristics of what constitutes a church. For example, in countries such as Iran
and Saudi Arabia, the official religion Islam is closely linked with the state, with religion controlling the state
on all political, social, moral and educational matters.
◦ A church or denomination? A further problem with the classification system is it may not reflect reality
For example, some churches that are meant to be the official state religions of a country, have lost their
influence over the majority of the population and the state, partly because of the impact of secularisation
and religious diversity becoming the norm. This means many churches are now akin to the characteristics of a
denomination rather than churches in certain countries.
◦ Eurocentric. The religious classifications are viewed as being Eurocentric, originally made by sociologists
working within a European Christian tradition and therefore they cannot be applied to non-Christian religions
such as Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism. This means the validity is only predominantly applicable to Western
European countries.
Problems of stigma
Some religious organisations such as cults and sects have generated negative connotations and public
hostility towards them. This can lead to some very peaceful sects and cults being portrayed in a negative light
such as ‘weird’, ‘bizarre’, ‘threatening’ or ‘dangerous’. No member of an unconventional religious organisation
wants to be labelled with such terms. However, some cults (such as Scientology) are becoming increasingly
influential in society. For example, celebrities who are committed sect members (such as Tom Cruise and John
Travolta) have publicly attempted to portray them in a positive manner.
New Religious Movements (NRMs)
Since the 1960s there has been a rapid growth of cults and sects, making it difficult to classify them under one particular
type. This led Roy Wallis (1984), to reject the typology outlined by Troeltsch for a number of reasons. Firstly, sect and cult
are negatively loaded as terms and imply some judgement of the organisations. Secondly, some religious organisations
did not fit neatly into the previous categories. For example, with the Hindu-based Siddha Yoga movement, one cannot be
sure if it is a cult or a sect. So instead of referring to them as ‘denominations’, ‘sects’ or ‘cults’, Wallis (1984), coined the
term New Religious Movements. This is a broader updated classification system and typology in which he divides them
into three main groups based on their relationship to the outside world.
- World-accommodating.
- World-affirming groups.
- World-rejecting groups.
- World-accommodating.
Similar characteristics as a denomination. They are often offshoots of churches. These
religious organisations are critical or dissatisfied with some aspects of wider society as well as mainstream religions
and often seek to revert back to the pure religious teachings of their faith, holding conservative beliefs (e.g. against
divorce, abortion, contraception, are anti-gay rights). Individuals feel they can redress this situation in their own lives
without cutting themselves off from the wider society.
Examples: Baptist churches, Methodist Churches, Pentecostal Churches.
- World-affirming groups.
Similar characteristics as a cult. These types of religious organisation are less religious and
focus more on human development, such as self-improvement therapies and psychologies attempting to develop
and release ‘human potential and growth’, enabling participants to become more successful members of society.
They do not require a major change from a conventional lifestyle.
Examples: Church of Scientology, Human Potential Movement, Transcendental Meditation.
- World-rejecting groups.
Similar characteristics of a sect. They are often very hostile, critical or rejecting of
mainstream society. Membership is often based on exclusive entry, often led by an influential and charismatic
leader. A high level of commitment is required and it demands its members sacrifice a great deal to be part of the
organisation; this may entail a sharp break with conventional life and significant lifestyle changes
Examples: The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON-Hare Krishna), Branch Davidians, Peoples’
Temple and ISIS.
Stark and Bainbridge (1985), are critical of the previous typologies of religious organisations. They claimed the criteria
was too broad, which meant there were many similar characteristics that tended to be found in each group, resulting
in confusion and contradictions and should, therefore, be abandoned. Instead, they argued for a much tighter basic
criterion, where religious groups can be compared in terms of a single criterion: the degree of conflict that exists
between them and the wider society. Such a definition allows clear comparisons and changes over time to be described.
They suggest:
- Sects are an offshoot of an existing religion as a result of schism (split) due to differences in interpretation or
religious doctrine and practises. - Cults can be defined in terms of a new religion in society or one that is new to that particular society (e.g. Scientology
in the UK). There are three types of cults according to their degrees of organisation:
◦ Audience cult: the least formal and organised cult, with no membership and with little interaction, but which may
hold occasional meetings. For example, astrology believers share a common belief but do not necessarily know
each other as they do not have large gatherings.
◦ Client cults: a more formal and organised cult, usually offering services to their followers — form a client/
practitioner relationship. For example, Scientology offers to clear ‘engrams’ (e.g. repressed memories of painful
experiences) for followers.
◦ Cult movements: the most formal and organised cult, demanding a higher level of commitment than other cults.
Many client cults can develop into cult movements for their most dedicated followers, e.g. members of the
Heaven’s Gate cult committed suicide when a comet crossed the sky in 1997, holding the belief such an action
would bring them to heaven.
The strengths of Wallis’s new topology.
Wallis does not argue that all religious groups will fall exactly into one of his three categories. Consequently,
he acknowledges some groups fall in the ‘middle ground’ between two or more of his types. Furthermore, his
topology avoids some of the stigma associated with grouping certain religions as a sect or a cult.
The problem of classification
Some NRMs cannot be categorised under Wallis’s classification system. For example, the Unification Churc
(Moonies) cannot be classified in the existing type because it incorporates religious ideas from a variety of
sources such as Christianity, Taoism, Confucianism and elements of other modern ideas. So it makes it difficult
to determine the type of relationship this organisation has to the outside world — world-accommodating,
world-rejecting or world-affirming
Methodological issues
Some NRMs are extremely difficult to investigate, especially those that are more deviant and secretive, where
accessibility will be almost impossible. Therefore, at times, knowledge will be based on secondary data which
makes it difficult to classify under a particular category
Stark and Bainbridge’s typology is too simplistic.
Although Stark and Bainbridge considered their own typology as superior to others, they are criticised for
being over-simplistic in their categorisation as they only consider the degree of tension between religions
and the wider society. Other factors such as the extent to which the religion tolerates other religions are not
addressed in their categorisation (McGuire 2002).
Reasons for the Growth of NRMs
Sociologists offer several explanations for the rapid growth and appeal of New Religious Movements (sects and cults)
since the 1960s:
Marginality
- Max Weber (1963), offers one of the earliest explanations for the growth of sects. He argues sects appeal to social
groups who feel they are marginalised and disadvantaged in society; usually the working class and lower-middle
class. This is because sects provide a solution for those who see themselves as lacking in ‘social’ and ‘status’
recognition in society, by offering what Weber calls theodicy of disprivilege: a religious explanation for their
disadvantage, by offering a better life in the afterlife or in a future society after a divine intervention. - Bellah gives the example of the continuing marginalisation of Black Americans since WW2 that has led many to seek
refuge in NRMs, especially Black Muslims. The growth of the sect called Nation of Islam can be seen as a response to
the increasing hardship of the ghetto (e.g. poverty, bad housing, unemployment). In the Black Muslim movement —
which grew especially in the 1960s — individuals found friendship and emotional support. Members were encouraged
to believe Blacks were by nature “divine” and were superior to Whites. On initiation, Blacks replaced their slave name
with a Muslim name and transformed their negative identity to a positive one. Believers were required to follow a
strict moral code (e.g. no alcohol) and were encouraged to look after each other’s welfare. Their ultimate goal was
Black supremacy.
Reasons for the Growth of NRMs
Sociologists offer several explanations for the rapid growth and appeal of New Religious Movements (sects and cults)
since the 1960s: relative deprivation
- The marginality fails to explain the popularity of NRMs amongst white, middle class males. Many NRMs, e.g. The Christian
Science Movement, have a largely middle-class membership. It is possible some individuals who are affluent (e.g. income,
housing) may feel themselves to be ‘deprived’ or ‘disadvantaged’ by comparing themselves to others, especially their
reference groups such as friends, siblings and so on. If this is the case, they have experienced feelings of relative deprivation.
So whilst they don’t lack material wealth, they may feel spiritually deprived. In fact, material success can heighten these
feelings. Hence, they have joined NRMs to find peace of mind and spiritual fulfilmen
Reasons for the Growth of NRMs
Sociologists offer several explanations for the rapid growth and appeal of New Religious Movements (sects and cults)
since the 1960s: social change
- Wilson (1982), argues the appeal of world religious movements often occurs at a time of rapid social change or
disruption in society, which undermines or threatens the norms of society. This can result in producing a feeling of
social dislocation and anomie (normlessness) where guidelines for social behaviour are no longer in place. Wilson
argues a number of circumstances can produce these feelings such as war, economic collapse and natural disaster.
For some, the rapid social change will seem attractive, with NRMs offering certainty, warmth and the support of a
community which gives its members a reason for living. Two explanations are given for both world-rejecting NRMs
and world-affirming NRMs
- Wilson (1982), argues the appeal of world religious movements often occurs at a time of rapid social change or
disruption in society, which undermines or threatens the norms of society. This can result in producing a feeling of
social dislocation and anomie (normlessness) where guidelines for social behaviour are no longer in place. Wilson
argues a number of circumstances can produce these feelings such as war, economic collapse and natural disaster.
For some, the rapid social change will seem attractive, with NRMs offering certainty, warmth and the support of a
community which gives its members a reason for living. Two explanations are given for both world-rejecting NRMs
and world-affirming NRMs:
◦ World rejecting NRM. The 1960s and 1970s saw a rapid increase in urbanisation and industrialisation in Western
countries. This led to a breakdown in community and feelings of anonymity. People sought refuge in religious
groups like Hare Krishna, particularly amongst the young and affluent. In these NRMs, members are able to fin
security or friendship, as well as strong systems of faith.
◦ World affirming NRM. Bruce (1995) suggests the growth of world-affirming movements has been a response to
modernisation, especially the rationalisation of work. This is because people find it increasingly difficult to gai
satisfaction and a sense of identity from work. These NRMs offer people both success and a spiritual element to their
lives.
The research evidence against the ‘marginality’ explanation
There is research evidence that does not support the view that those from disadvantaged groups tend to join
sects. Eileen Barker (1984), found while studying the religious group the ‘Moonies’ that most members of NRMs
come from happy, middle-class homes. This suggests membership of NRMs is not only confined to the lower
levels of society. However, Wallis argues this does not contradict the marginality theory as many of the recruits
had become marginalised because they were “hippies, drop-outs, surfers or LSD and marijuana users”.
The research evidence against the ‘social change’ explanation
There is research evidence that does not support the view social change leads to people joining sects. Stark
and Bainbridge (1985), analysed the percentages in the USA in different time periods during the first three-
quarters of the 20th century. They found 16% were formed in the 1950s, a period of stability, 14% in the 1960s,
and only 3% from 1970-1977. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of social unrest with student demonstrations,
the hippie movement, black riots and the Vietnam war. This seems to question the view sects develop during
periods of social change. However, Stark and Bainbridge used a limited definition of a sect – a breakaway from
established religion. A broader definition may result in different figures and a different conclusion
Reasons why sects are short-lived
Niebuhr (1929), in a study of sects in America, found sects will either die out within one generation, or they must
reconcile with society, by ‘cooling down’ their extreme views and become a denomination. Neibuhr put forward several
reasons why sects and NRM are short-lived:
Niebuhr (1929), in a study of sects in America, found sects will either die out within one generation, or they must
reconcile with society, by ‘cooling down’ their extreme views and become a denomination. Neibuhr put forward several
reasons why sects and NRM are short-lived:
- The second generation lacks the commitment.
- Death or loss of charismatic leaders.
- The reasons for joining are no longer present.
- Too extreme.
Sects and NRMs are not always short-lived
Wilson (1959) argues not all sects disappear over time or turn into denominations; that is not the only choice they have.
Some sects continue to survive and remain as a sect. For example, the Jehovah’s Witness movement and the Seventh
Day Adventist movement are examples of long-standing and established Christian sects. According to Wilson, for a sect
to retain its sect status or become a denomination depends on what the sect offers its members to enable them to be
‘saved’ (i.e. salvation).
- Conversionist sects
- Conversionist sects are the most likely to develop into denominations. These believe the only way to salvation into
heaven is to be born again, which requires individuals to ‘convert’. Their aim is to convert as many people as possible
to God through evangelical preaching. To do this on a wide scale, they eventually have to: [1] evolve a bureaucratic
structure and a paid hierarchy of officials; [2] They must also maintain constant contact with the outside world (from
which new converts are, of course, drawn). If such sects are successful in recruiting a large number of individuals this
can turn into a denomination, e.g. The Salvation Army that has turned from a conversionist sect into a denomination.
- Adventist sects (revolutionary sect)
tend to believe in a ‘doomsday’ scenario that a divine intervention or imminent
radical transformation in the world will occur (e.g. the Second coming of Christ) where evil will be defeated. To be
‘saved’, members are required to remove themselves from the corrupt world. This separatist approach can prevent
sects from becoming a denomination, e.g. the Jehovah’s Witness movement.
- Introversionist sects
sects believe in not compromising their religious conviction to God; a compromise in their religious
practise may not guarantee them salvation. To be ‘saved’, they have to cut themselves off completely from the
outside world and remain as a marginalised community (e.g. the Amish and Mormon movements). Such disengaged
sects often remain as they are and are very unlikely to change into a denomination.
New Age Movements (NAMs)
Since the 1980s a new type of unconventional religious organisation has emerged called the New Age Movement. Although they
have very similar characteristics to cults, Heelas (1996), suggests that NAMs are primarily concerned with mind-body ideas: the
achievement of self-discovery, personal growth, self-perfection, the harnessing of inner potential and spiritual awareness, and
often involving a rejection of scientific and rational logic. The beliefs and practices are often derived from environmentalism,
alternative medicine and therapies, Eastern and Western philosophies, and psychology. For example, crystal therapy,
clairvoyance, psychic healing, feng shui, astrology, tarot, reincarnation, Wicca (witchcraft), shamanism and palmistry.
According to
Bruce (2002), some of the primary common themes of NAMs and what separates them from mainstream religions are:
◦ A belief in the notion of inner human potential – new age ideas aim to connect you with your inner-self to
maximise your potential to make you happier, healthier and more successful.
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◦ Therapeutic techniques – new age ideas tend to be therapeutic. Followers of new age ideas believe this can be
unlocked by new age therapeutic techniques to improve themselves (as above).
◦ A belief in natural energy – the idea that good and bad energy exist, which can have an impact on human
behaviour. Some NAMs provide techniques to control negative energy, e.g. crystals, aromatherapy and feng shui,
and wearing metal bangles etc.
◦ Everything is connected – NAMs take a holistic approach. They see the ‘Self’ (mind, body and spirit) being
connected and influenced by the environment, the supernatural and the cosmos, as we are all part of the greater
whole.
Evaluation of New Age Movements
NAMs are not religions
A further criticism of classifying a NAM as a type of religious organisation is some sociologists have argued
many NAMs are essentially not religions. Many do not have a collective worshipping, belief or supernatural
power element to them. For example, Shiatsu massage, herbalism, mindfulness and yoga have no religious
characteristics, and therefore should not be classified as one
Reasons for the growth of the New Age Movement
Some sociologists such as Bruce (1995), see the growth of New Age Movements as a reflection of modernity rather
than postmodernity — a phase rather than a new era or type of society. While others see the New Age Movement as an
expression of postmodernity — a new era which is distinct from modernity. There are several explanations for the growth
of new age ideas in the modernity/postmodernity world:
- Provides meaning.
- Provides spiritual fulfilment and identity.
Reasons for the growth of the New Age Movement: * Provides meaning.
According to Bauman (1982), in a postmodernist society, where there has been a growing rejection
of grand narratives such as religion and science, people have lost faith in traditional sources of authority which has
left people with a void in their lives — a ‘crisis of meaning’, to their existence. Postmodernists believe the growth of
NAMs (as well as NRMs) offer individuals meaning and explanations for their existence.
Reasons for the growth of the New Age Movement:* Provides spiritual fulfilment and identity.
identity. Heelas (1998), sees the growth of New Age Movement ideas as a result of
living in a postmodern world. Some of the reasons for the growth of New Age Movements are:
◦ Consumerism: a world over-saturated by consumerism has left people feeling dissatisfied with their lives — a lack
of spirituality. The New Age Movement offers ways to achieve spiritual fulfilment in a consumer culture world
◦ Identity crisis: the decline of religious traditions, dogmas and the assimilation of cultures, class, ethnicity etc, in a
fast-changing world, has left people with a fragmented identity; people are unsure of themselves. New Age beliefs
offer a sense of identity.
