Organisations Members And Movements

Question 1

Troeltsch (1912) and Niebuhr (1929)

Answer 1

Troeltsch distinguishes between 2 types of Organisations – ‘Church’ and ‘Sect’.

Niebuhr argues that he has identified 2 other types of organisations that are fundamentally different to a Church and a Sect – ‘Denomination’ & ‘Cult’.

Question 2

Churches
Troeltsch tells us the following:

Answer 2

1) they are bureaucratic: Churches have a clear hierarchical power structure with paid officials, are wealthy and have lots of power and influence in society.

2) they are ideologically conservative: Churches are likely to help to maintain the current structure of society (support it’s laws, values etc.)

3) They are universalistic with open membership: Churches welcome individuals from all parts of society and do not require particular demonstrations of faith from their followers, just a belief. Although, the higher classes are particularly attracted because they are a conservative force.

4) They tend to claim a religious monopoly on truth: They claim to know all world ‘truths’.

5) They tend to be liked by the state: For example, the British Sovereign is head of both the state and Church of England.

Question 3

Sects

Answer 3

1) They are not bureaucratic and hierarchical: They tend to have a Charismatic Leader who encourage people to follow their teaching.

2) Similarities with the church: The only similarity with the church is that they also believe they have a monopoly on the truth.

3) They attract the vulnerable

4) Sects expect their members to have a strong level of commitment.

5) They are hostile to wider society

Question 4

Denominations

Answer 4

1) They are seen as a midway point between churches and sects: Niebuhr sees denominations such as Methodism as lying midway between a church and Sect.

2) They are bureaucratic but do have some division in authority and more democratic: Denominations do not always have a strict hierarchical structure & do not always have links with the State.

3) They generally conservative: Likely to accept dominant norms but often have restrictions e.g. Alcohol, Gambling.

4) They are tolerant of other religions: They see themselves as ‘one amongst many’.

Question 5

Cults

Answer 5

1) They are the least organised: Cults tend to lack the rigid structures e.g. collective worship, strict dogmas that other movements tend to have.

2) they are small groups without a sharply defined and exclusive belief system: Cults tend to share themes and interests.

3) They have a relaxed commitment: Cults do not demand strong commitment, members are seen as customers or trainees. Once they have acquired their knowledge they are not required to stay.

4) They are led by ‘practitioners’ or ‘therapists’: Leaders often claim to have special knowledge.

5) Many cults are world affirming: Members are promised a better life in this world

Question 6

According to Roy Wallis (1984) the similarities and differences between religious organisations can be categorised into 2 groups:

Answer 6

HOW THEY SEE THEMSELVES:
Churches and sects claim that their interpretation of the faith is the only legitimate and correct one. Denominations and cults accept that there can be many valid interpretations.

How they are seen by wider society:
Churches and denominations are seen as respectable and legitimate, whereas sects and cults are seen as deviant!

Question 7

From cathedrals to cults…
Sociologists argue that some of these explanations are out-dated.

Answer 7

Bruce argues that Troeltsch’s idea of a church as having a ‘religious monopoly’ only applies to the Catholic church before the 16th Century Protestant Reformation, when it had a religious monopoly over society, symbolised by its massive and imposing cathedrals.
Since then cults and sects have flourished and religious diversity has become the norm. Consequently, churches have lost the monopoly that Troeltsch claimed, and are now reduced to the status of denominations, competing like the rest.

Question 8

What are New Religious Movements (NRMS)

Answer 8

The development of a range of new religions and the revival of some old ones, in the 1960’S & 1970’s, led Roy Wallis to categorise them as new religious movements.

Question 9

Wallis divided NRMS into 3 main groups based on whether they:

Answer 9

REJECT THE OUTSIDE WORLD
ACCOMMODATE THE OUTSIDE WORLD
AFFIRM THE OUTSIDE WORLD

Question 10

World rejecting NRMS- similar to sects

Answer 10

They are religious organisations with a clear relationship with god.

Highly critical of the outside world, expecting to seek radical change.

They require total commitment, demanding significant lifestyle changes (they often live communally) and have been accused of ‘brain washing’.

They often have conservative morals. For example, the Moonies are very strict about sex only taking place in a monogamous marriage.

Question 11

World accommodating NRMS- similar to denominations

Answer 11

They often come out of traditional religions.

They try to rediscover spiritual purity lost in traditional religions. For example, Pentecostalism is a movement within Christianity that aims to bring the holy spirit back into worship.

They allow people to carry on with their existing lifestyle.

Question 12

World affirming NRMS -similar to cults

Answer 12

They are similar to self help and therapy groups- they try to unlock spiritual power. They have been described as psychologising religion.

They seek wide membership and as such are tolerant of other religions.

They do not require especially high levels of commitment.

Followers are often seen as customers, rather than members. Entry is through training.

They are the most successful. For example, Scientology has about 165,000 members in the UK compared to the Moonies who have 1,200.

Question 13

Evaluation for Wallis

Answer 13

Beckford (1985) commends Wallis for recognising that NRM’s do not always fit neatly into one category or another.

However, Beckford does criticise Wallis for failing to pay attention to the diversity of views that often exists within a sect or cult.

Stark and Bainbridge reject the idea of using a typology, or a list of types to distinguish new religions.

They claim that in general some of the characteristics found in the typology are all likely to be present in each religious organisation. However, not all the characteristics will be found in each religious organisation. E.G: not all churches seek convert all members of society and not all sects are exclusive. Therefore, typologies need to be abandoned when attempting to categorise religious organisations.

Stark and Bainbridge believe that there should be just one criterion- the degree of conflict of tension between the religious group and wider society.

Question 14

Stark and Bainbridge identify two kinds of organisation that are in conflict with wider society- sects and cults.

Answer 14

Sects result from schisms. Splits in existing organisations. In general they are religions that promise other-worldly benefits (e.g. A place in heaven) to those who are suffering economic or ethical deprivation .

Cults are new religions, or ones that have been imported to a particular society. They offer worldly benefits (e.g. good health). Stark and Bainbridge subdivide cults according to how organised they are:

Question 15

Audience cults

Answer 15

Are the least organised and do not involve formal membership or much commitment. There is little interaction between members and participation may be through the media.

Examples: Astrology and UFO cults!

Question 16

Client cults

Answer 16

Are based on the relationship between a consultant and a client, and provide services to their followers.

In the past, they were often sources of medical miracles, contact with the dead etc, but the emphasis has shifted to ‘therapies’ promising personal fulfilment and self-discovery.

Question 17

Cultic cults

Answer 17

Are the most organised and demand a higher level of commitment than other cults. The movement aims to meet all its members’ religious needs and unlike followers of audience or client cults, they are rarely allowed to belong to other religious groups at the same time.

An example: The Moonies

Question 18

The growth of NRMS

Answer 18

Since the 1960’s, there has been a rapid growth in the number of sects and cults, and in the number of people belonging to them.

There are estimated to be over 800 NRMs and over half a million individuals belonging to these and other non-mainstream Christian churches in the UK.

Question 19

Marginality

Answer 19

As Troeltsch noted, sects tend to draw their members from the poor and oppressed.

Similarly, according to Weber, sects tend to arise in groups who are marginal to society- they may not feel that they are getting their just economic rewards or social status.

Question 20

solution to marginality (reason for growth)

Answer 20

In Weber’s view, sects offer a solution to this problem by offering their members a theodicy of disprivellege – AKA a religious explanation and justification for their suffering and disadvantage.

This may explain their misfortune as a test of faith while holding out the promise of rewards in the future for ‘keeping the faith’.

Question 21

‘Keeping the faith’ example

Answer 21

In the 20th Century, the Nation of Islam (the Black Muslims- a political and religious movement) successfully recruited among disadvantaged blacks in the USA.

Black slaves dropped their slave names and replaced them with Muslim names which helped turn a negative identity into a positive one!

Question 22

However since the 1960s… (evaluations for marginality)

Answer 22

the sect-like world rejecting NRM’s (E.G The Moonies) have recruited mainly from more affluent groups and often, well-educated young, middle-class whites. Eileen Barker (1984)

Whilst this IS the case, Wallis argues that this does not contradict Weber’s view, because many of these individuals had become marginal to society. E.G: Many were hippies, drop-outs and drug users!

Question 23

Relative deprivation (reason for growth)

Answer 23

This refers to the subjective sense of being deprived. E.G: it is possible for someone who is in reality quite privileged to feel that they are deprived or disadvantaged in some way.

Thus, although middle-class people are materially well off, they may feel spiritually deprived, especially in today’s materialistic, consumerist world!

Question 24

What do people turn to due to relative deprivation

Answer 24

Wallis argues that as a result, people turn to sects for a sense of community.

Similarly, Stark & Bainbridge argue that it is the relatively deprived who break away from churches to form sects in the first place!

When M/C members of a church seek to compromise its beliefs in order to fit into society, deprived members are likely to break away into sects that safeguard the original message of the organisation.

Question 25

Social change

Answer 25

This is the third explanation for the growth of NRMs.

Wilson (1970) argues that periods of rapid social change disrupt and undermine established norms and values, creating a sense of ‘anomie’ (normlessness).

In response to this, people may turn to sects

Question 26

Example of social change

Answer 26

The dislocation created by the industrial revolution in Britain in the last 18th and early 19th century led to the birth of Methodism.

It offered a sense of community, warmth and fellowship, clear norms and values and the promise of salvation. It successfully recruited large numbers of the new industrial working class.

Question 27

Evaluation of relative deprivation

Answer 27

Asceticism with lots of rules and restrictions particularly on younger people might create a conflict of interest and lead to people leaving the sect

Question 28

Evaluation of social change

Answer 28

Walks is keen to note that NRMS change with the times becoming popular when things settle E.g popular in the USA during the 60s and the Vietnam war

Question 29

Evaluations of modernity

Answer 29

Niebuhr claims that sects and other organisations are often short lived. E.g death of charismatic leader or associated costs of cults may put off w/c people

Question 30

Bruce and social change

Answer 30

Bruce sees the growth of sects and cults today as a response to the social changes involved in modernisation and secularisation.

In Bruce’s view, society is now secularised and therefore people are less attracted to the traditional churches and strict sects, because they demand too much commitment.

Instead, people now prefer cults because they are less demanding and require fewer sacrifices!

Question 31

world rejecting NRMs (Wallis)

Answer 31

Wallis points to social changes from the 60’s impacting on young people. E.G: the increased time spent in education.

This gave them freedom from adult responsibilities and enabled counter-culture to develop.

Also, the growth of radical political movements offered alternative ideas about the future.

World-rejecting NRMs were attractive because they offered a more idealistic way of life. Bruce argues it was the failure of counter culture to change the world that led these people to turn to religion!

Question 32

World affirming NRMS (Bruce and Wallis)

Answer 32

Bruce argues that their growth is a response to modernity, especially to the rationalisation of work.

Work no longer provides meaning or a source of identity- unlike the past, when the Protestant ethic gave work a religious meaning for some people.

Yet at the same time, we are expected to achieve- even though we may lack the opportunities to do so!

Wallis also notes that some ‘movements of the middle ground’ such as the Jesus Freaks have grown since the mid 1970’s. They have attracted disillusioned former members of world-rejecting NRMs because they provide a halfway house back to a more conventional lifestyle.

Question 33

Niebuhr (1929): sects are short-lived as they will inevitably die out or become a denomination for 3 main reasons:

Answer 33

1) Less commitment from the second generation

2) Asceticism creates conflict of interests

3) Death of the charismatic leader

Question 34

‘denomination of sects’ idea

Answer 34

Wilson argues that conversionist sects such as Evangelicals are most likely to turn into denominations.

To do this on a large scale, the sect must develop a large, far-reaching bureaucratic framework with a paid hierarchy of officials.

They must also maintain a strong relationship with the ‘outside’ world, and as such, they lost their ‘world-rejecting’ radical views!

However
Wilson is careful to avoid generalisations. He does argue only conversionist sects become denominations.

Adventist sects who argue that to be saved they should distance themselves from the ‘dangerous outside’, means they will never become world-accommodating.

This ‘separatist’ attitude means no church will recognise Adventist sects as denominations of their own church. E.G: Jehova’s witnesses.

Question 35

New age movements