Organisational Behaviour Flashcards
what is an organisation
A collection of interacting and interdependent individuals who work towards common goals and whose relationships are determined according to a certain structure
A structured social system consisting of groups and individuals working together to meet some agreed upon objectives
what is organisation behaviour
- The ‘people’ side of organizations
- How to manage people in organizations
- Why do people act as they do in organizations
-The impact of management on workers and society
In short, OB is “the study of individuals and groups in organisations”.
what is the 4 foundations of organisational behaviour
- social psychology
- organisational psychology
- sociology
- anthropology
characteristics of organisational behaviour
- Applied focus
study organisational behaviour to understand how and why things happen and to improve them. - Contingency Orientation
People are complex. OB is a social science and outcomes of interactions depend on many variables - Rigorous Study
It is more than just common sense, we look for evidence of relationships between behaviors and outcomes under different circumstances and from different perspectives.
how did organisational behaviour develop
- industrial revolution
- wealth of nations
what was the Industrial Revolution
Started 1760 – 1840.
Began in England with:
Transition of hand production to machines
New production processes
Increasing use of steam power in machinery and transportation
Switch to coal
what was Adam smiths theory
Adam Smith’s idea of the “invisible hand” means that when people in an organization work to achieve their own goals, they often end up benefiting the whole organization without even realizing it. It’s like everyone doing their own thing, but it somehow helps the whole team or company. To make this work well, it’s important to have good teamwork, clear goals, and be fair and honest in what you do.
what are the 9 models of organisational behaviour
- The evolution of work and organisational theory
- Classic views of organisations
- Max Weber’s “ideal bureaucracy”
- Henri Fayol’s “classic principles”
- Scientific management
- The Human relations school
- The Systems Approach
- The Socio-technical School
- The Contingency Approach
characteristics of beuracrasy
- rules and procedures
-written communications and records
-management separated from owners
-technically qualified personnel
-hierarchy of authority
-Specialisation and Division of Labour
disadvantages of burocrascy
- Enables few with knowledge to control many without knowledge.
- Clear criteria for rewards/promotions
- Clear allocation of responsibilities and duties
- Allows for uniformity of treatment, regularity of procedures and maintenance of detailed records
- Over emphasis on record keeping, rules and procedures might become an obsession, rather than means to an end - Initiative may be stifled
- Officious bureaucratic behavior
- Impersonal relations can lead to stereotyped behavior
what is the administrative theory
created by Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925)
Management identified as a skill rather than simply a natural talent
The role of management is to:
- forecast and plan,
- organise,
- command,
- coordinate,
- control
what is the criticism of the administrative theory
- It’s unscientific
- Dehumanising
the adminsitrive theory what is fayols 14 principles
Division of work
specialisation
Authority and responsibility
Discipline
Unity of Command
Removes conflict
Unity of Direction
Subordination of individual interest to general interest
Remuneration of personnel
Centralisation
Scalar chain
hierarchy to enable lateral and vertical communication
Order
Equity
Stability of tenure
Initiative
Esprit de corps
What is the disadvantages of Fayols theory
-unscientific
- dehumanising
What is scientific management theory
- The development of a true science of management so that the best method of performing each task could be determined.
- The scientific selection of workers so that each worker would be given responsibility for the task for which he or she was best suited.
- The scientific education and development of the worker.
Intimate, friendly cooperation between management and labour.
what is the foundation of scientific management theory
Antagonism between management and workers due to:
1) The fallacious belief of the workers that any increase in output would inevitably result in layoffs and unemployment.
2) Defective systems of management made it necessary for workers to restrict output in order to protect their own interests.
3) Inefficient, rule-of-thumb effort wasting work methods.
what did the scientific management theory implement
Huge savings in cost and increases in output:
1) Franklin Motor Co. increased output from 100 cars/month to 45 cars/day
2) But employee wages only increased by 90%
3) SM principles was often implemented selectively (e.g. increased productivity but performance gains not shared)
4) Increased performance led to fewer jobs
5) Greater threat of lay offs
6) Employees working harder for the same amount of money
7) Highly monotonous and repetitive work – job dissatisfaction!
what is the advantages and disadvantages of scientific management theory
Advantages
1) First scientific approach to the study of work
2) Introduces important notions such as reward based pay
3) Still applied in many organisations today, e.g. McDonalds, call centres, production lines
Disadvantages
1) Assumes rational economic motivations
2) Neglects the subjective side of work
3) Fails to appreciate the interpretations of close supervision and control
4) Ignores the psychological needs of the workers
what consequences arose from the scientific management theory
A sense of Alienation (Argyle, 1989)
Powerlessness
Loss of control over conditions of work, work processes, pace and methods
Meaninglessness
Loss of significance of work activities
Isolation
Loss of sense of membership of the work community
Self estrangement
Loss of personal identity, of sense of work as a central life interest
what was the human relation movement by Elton mayo
- Illumination studies
Vary light level to establish “best” conditions - Relay Assembly Test Room
Vary rest periods and refreshments - Interviewing programme
Structured inquiry into work activity - Bank Wiring Observation Room
Effectiveness of financial incentives
what is the Implications of Human Relations Theory
1) Informal organisation as important as the formal organisation
2) Informal group goals may be more important than formal group goals
3) Human beings are social animals
4) Workers perform better if given the opportunity to participate
what was the relay assembly study conclusion
1) Output more affected by social relations than wage incentives and physical conditions
2) Production rose because of a change in attitude towards work and work teams which had stability and purpose.
3) Sense of belonging
what is systems theory
- Organisations are systems of different parts
- Earlier theoretical approaches view organisations as closed systems
- Organisations are open to their environment
- Fundamentally, organisations are open systems made of social and technical sub-systems
what is a Socio-technical systems – Trist (1951)
Longwall mining
shift from small group-based production to large groups of up to 50 individuals separated across 3 shifts to improve efficient use of new technology
Informal cliques developed, leaving some workers isolated
Mutual scapegoating across shifts when the system broke down,
Absenteeism and poor performance increased
what is contingency approaches
People are too complex for simple general principles to explain or predict behaviour.
Rejects prescriptive approach of “one best way”
Tries to establish what conditions will lead to what types of outcome.
Assumes interdependence between personal and situational factors which determines employee behaviour.
who Is Herbert Simon
steady shift of emphasis from ‘principles of administration’ themselves, to a study of the conditions under which competing principles are respectively applicable
what is levits theory
- structure
- technology
- people
- managerial tasks
what is the product lifecycle
introduction
growth
maturity
decline
what is organisational birth
Organizational birth: the founding of an organization
Plan should include:
Statement of the organization’s mission, goals, and financial objectives
Statement of the organization’s strategic objectives
List of all the functional and organizational resources required to implement the idea
Timeline that contains specific milestones used to measure the progress of the venture
what is population ecology theory
Population ecology theory: a theory that seeks to explain the factors that affect the rate at which new organizations are born (and die) in a population of existing organizations
what is population of organisations
Population of organizations: the organizations that are competing for the same set of resources in the environment
what is Population Ecology Model of Organisational Birth
Analysis in population ecology has three levels:
- explaining birth and death rates within a population
- explaining vital-rate interaction between populations
- examining “communities of populations” sharing similar environments
what is a R strategy
r-strategy: a strategy of entering a new environment early
what Factors produce a rapid birth rate
(ecology model)
- Availability of knowledge and skills to generate similar new organizations
- New organizations that survive provide role models
what is a K strategy
K-strategy: a strategy of entering an environment late, after other organizations have tested the environment
what are B Survival strategies
Specialists: organizations that concentrate their skills to pursue a narrow range of resources in a single niche
Generalists: organizations that spread their skills thin to compete for a broad range of resources in many niches
what is birth rate tapers
As environment is populated with a number of successful organizations, birth rate tapers off because:
Fewer resources are available for newcomers
First-mover advantages: benefits derived from being an early entrant into a new environment
Difficulty of competing with existing companies
what is the internal factors of locus of control
Internal:
- You are in control
- Rewards are a result of their behaviour
- Improved handling of complex data and problem solving
- Achievement orientated
- Independent/leadership issues
what is the external factors of locus of control
External:
- Fatalism
- Blame others
- Less involved in jobs
- More compliant and conforming
- Easier to lead
what is the Analysis of individual employees: Locus of control
Internal
- More compliant and conforming
- Easier to lead
- Change by telling
External
- Independent
- Self-empowered
- Leadership Issues
- Change by negotiation
Locus of control: Employees in a Crisis Situation
internal
1) Accepts responsibility for actions / decisions
2) Independent thinking often averts crisis by resolving 3) the problem prior to escalation
external
1) Fatalistic
2) Blame Others (Scapegoating)
3) A job done to the bitter end irrespective of changes going on around them
what are individual diffrences
- Physical qualities
- Demographic differences
- Abilities
- Skills
- Personality
what are personality determinate
1) Heredity
2) Environment
Cultural Factors
Social Factors
Situational Factors
personalities Writers how many people developed the theory:
- D. W. Fiske (1949)
- Norman (1967)
- Smith (1967)
- Goldberg (1981)
- McCrae & Costa (1987
what is personality and work behaviour
- The relationship between personality and work is very much dependent upon the nature of work.
- Consider the different personality traits for being a successful:
Nurse
Salesperson
Accountant
Engineer
Lorry driver
Professor
what does OCEAN stand for
1) Open to Experience
2) Conscientiousness
3) Extraversion
4) Agreeableness
5) Neuroticism
what is the advantages and disadvantages of openness
POSITIVES
-Increased learning
-More adaptable to change
NEGATIVES
- Easily bored when doing routine tasks
What is the big 5
1) Openness
2) Conscientiousness
3) Extraversion
4) Agreeableness
5) Emotional stability
what is the advantages and disadvantages of Conscientiousness
Advantages
- Disciplined
- Live longer
Disadvantages
- Don’t adapt easily to change
- Learning curve is longer
what is the advantages and disadvantages of Extraversion
Advantages
- Emotionally expressive
Disadvantages
- Impulsive
- Risky behaviours
What is the advantages and disadvantages of Agreeableness
Advantages
- Better liked
- Rule abiding
- Less likely to engage in deviant behavior
Disadvantages
- Poor negotiators
what is the advantages and disadvantages of Emotional stability
Advantages
- Less health complaints
- Less hyper vigilant
- Less negative thinking
Disadvantages
- Can take unnecessary risks
what is the romance of leadership
- People cognitively interpret and make sense of leadership behaviours
- Explanations for remarkable team & organisational performance
- Attributed to leadership effects, while other reasonable causes are largely ignored.
- Romanticise leaders – heroes or villains
what is the importance of effective leadership
Research on managerial succession
20 years has shown a relationship between effective leadership and organisational performance
Quality of executive leadership consistently accounted for between 15-45% of differences in company’s bottom line results.
From “Good” to “Great”
Surveyed 1000 to identify companies that performed below the average of their business sector for 15 years and then perfromed above the average for 15 years
11 companies fit this profile. In every case the firm’s performance improved after a new CEO had taken over
Profile of CEOs
Modest and humble
Very persistent in pursuit of organisational agenda
Lower & Middle Managers
65%-75% of employees report that the worst aspect of their job is their immediate boss.
“Bad leadership degrades the quality of life for everyone associated with it” (Hogan & Kaiser, 2005)
Role of direct leaders in motivating goal-setting – accounts for 16% of variance in individual task performance (Locke & Latham, 1981)
how does leadership affect staff morale
Staff cited interactions with their direct supervisor as one of the key events that puts them in a bad mood at work.
Leadership style accounts for as much as 12% of variance in in the level of staff commitment.
how does staff morale affect staff morale
- Research shows that organisations where staff morale is high, outperform organisations where staff morale is low.
- Staff morale impacts on staff turnover and retention rates. (Horn & Gaertner, 2000)
- As leadership affects staff morale, it is not surprising to discover that leadership also affects staff turnover. (Griffith, 2004)
- The cost of staff turnover has been estimated at 150% of the employee’s salary package. (Schlesinger et al, 1991)
what are the roles of a leader and a manager
Roles of a leader
- Communicate
- Motivate
- Encourage
- Involve people
Roles of a manager
- Plan & Budget
- Organise and staff
- Control
what is the trait theory
Continued fascination with ‘great’ leaders
Leadership seen as something a ‘great man’ is born with
Learning from biographies of ‘great leaders’ as to what makes them great
Personal characteristics or traits that make a great leader
what is the criticism of a trait theory
Limited academic rigour and evidence for causal impact
It is not clear which comes first; being in a leadership position or possessing the trait in question
Traits often ‘interact’ (combine) and have a different impact than they do individually
The trait approach provides little guidance concerning what advice or training to give current or soon-to-be leaders
what factors differentiate leaders from non leaders
Factors that differentiate leaders from non-leaders, include:
Intelligence (Judge, 2004)
Dominance/need for power
Self-confidence
Energy/persistence
Knowledge of the task
what is leadership emergence
Leadership Emergence: compared to non-leaders, nominations by group
members, observation and participation in leadership activities
what is leadership effectiveness
Leadership Effectiveness: often subordinate/supervisor rating of
performance effectiveness
what is the behavioural approach
n 1950s research at Ohio State University and Michigan University identified two styles of leadership (though gave them different names):
Consideration: the extent to which the leader demonstrates that they trust their subordinates, respect their ideas and show consideration for their feelings.
Initiating Structure: the extent to which the leader defines and structures their own role and the roles of their subordinates toward goal attainment. The leader actively directs group activities.
what is the leadership grid
country club management
team management
middle of the road management
impoverished management
authority compliant management
what is country club management
this is thoughtful attention to the needs of people satisfying relationships which leads to a comfortable and friendly work environment
what is team management
work accomplishment is from committed people independence through a common goal leads to relationships of trust and respect
what is the middle of the road management
adequate organisation performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get out the work while maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level
what is impoverish management
exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organisation membership
what is authority compliance management
efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work In such a way that elements infer to a minimum degree
what is Situational Leadership Theory
Situational Leadership attempts to explain effective leadership within the context of the larger situation in which it occurs:
1) Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
2) Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
what is Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
The situational contingency theory proposes that the effectiveness of a leader or the organisation is contingent on two elements:
The leaders’ motivational structures or leadership style
The degree to which the leadership situation provides the leader with control and influence over the outcomes
Whether the person-oriented or task-oriented is expected to be more effective depends on the favorableness of certain
factors:
The favorableness of the leader-member relations
The degree to which the tasks performed by the group were structured
The leader’s position power
what case links to the situational leadership theory
Hersey & Blanchard (1982) developed a ‘two dimensional’ model where it is possible to be high or low in both task and relation behavior
Job maturity – the amount of task-relevant knowledge, experience, skill, and ability that the follower possesses – able vs. unable
Psychological maturity – the follower’s self-confidence, commitment, motivation and self-respect relative to the task at hand – willing vs. unwilling
what are the situational leadership styles
- participating
-selling - delegating
-telling
what is partisapating in situational leadership styles
Participating:
Able but unwilling / insecure followers
Leader involves followers in the decision making process (HR/LT)
what is selling in situational leadership styles
Selling:
Unable but willing/motivated followers
Leader decides on course of action and sells it (HT/HR)
what is delegating in situational leadership styles
Delegating:
Able and willing/motivated followers
Leader allows followers to decide/ implement (LR/LT)
what is telling in situational leadership styles
Telling:
Unable and unwilling/insecure followers
Leader decides on course of action and announces it (High task HT/Low relationship LR)
what is Transactional Leadership
Transactional Leadership – leadership that motivates followers by exchanging rewards for high performance and noticing and reprimanding subordinates for mistakes and substandard performance.
what is transformational leadership
Transformational Leadership – leadership that inspires followers to trust the leader, to perform at a high level, and to contribute to the achievement of organisational goals.
what is Transactional Leadership points
Contingent Reward: leaders set up constructive transactions or exchanges with followers (e.g., clarify expectations, establish rewards).
Active Management by Exception: leaders monitor follower behaviour, anticipate problems, and take corrective action before serious difficulties occur.
Passive Management by Exception: leaders wait until the followers’ behaviour has created problems before taking action.
Laissez-faire Leadership represents the absence of leadership. It differs from passive management by exception, where at least some influence is exerted.
what is Transformational Leadership points
Idealised Influence: leaders behave in admirable ways so that followers tend to identify with them (e.g., display conviction, role modelling behaviours consistent with a vision, appeal on an emotional level).
Inspirational Motivation: leaders articulate a vision which is appealing and inspiring to followers (e.g., provide meaning for the work task, set high standards, communicate optimism about the achievability of the vision).
Intellectual Stimulation: leaders stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers (e.g., challenge assumptions, take risks, ask followers for their ideas and to develop them into practice).
Individualised Consideration: leaders attend to each follower individually (e.g., act as a mentor or coach, listen to their concerns and needs).
what is the Leader Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
A theory that describes the different kinds of relationships that may develop between a leader and a follower and what the leader and the follower give to and receive back from the relationship.
what are the types of exchanges
Managers develop different relationships with their subordinates, which very from low to high quality LMX
Low quality LMX – work to employment contract, low trust, support and rewards
High quality LMX – leader-follower bond has high interpersonal attraction, mutual influence, support and trust
80% of managers develop different quality relationships with their subordinates
what are the benefits of The better the leader-follower relationship:
job satisfaction
well-being
organisational commitment
Increased innovations
Work performance
Frequency of promotions
Negatively related to turnover
what is the Charismatic Leadership approach
Leaders Behaviours:
1. novel and appealing vision;
2. emotional appeals to values;
3. unconventional behaviour;
4. self sacrifices;
5. confidence and optimism
what is the Authentic Leadership approach
A form of ethical leadership
Know who they are, know what they believe in and value and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly
Primary quality is to build trust, followers develop faith in the leader
what is the Authentic Leadership approach dimension’s
Relational Transparency
Internalised Ethical/Moral Perspective
Balanced Processing
Self Awareness
what are the types of executive leadership
Types of Executives:
CEO
CFO
COO
Chairperson
Functional Directors or Heads
what is points of an effective strategic leader
trategy – pattern of choices intended to assure an organisation’s enduring success
Strategic leadership:
Broad in Scope
Future Focused
Change Oriented
Effective Strategic Leaders:
Strategic Thinking
Strategic Acting
Strategic Influence
define power
● Power -
The ability of one person or group to cause another person or group to
do something that they otherwise might not have done
● Based on ‘dependency’, control over resources that are
- Important (relevance to your life, e.g: parents)
- Scarce (you don’t have a second set of parents)
- Non-substitutable (your parents have unique qualities not found in anyone else)
what is the base of induvidual power r (French & Raven, 1959)
● Formal (position)
- Legitimate Power – the power to control and use organisational resources to
accomplish organisational goals
- Reward Power – the power to give pay raises, promotion, praise, interesting
projects, and other rewards to subordinates - Coercive Power – the power to give or withhold punishment
● Informal (personal) - – informal power that stems from superior ability/expertise
- – informal power that stems from being liked, admired, and
respected - Information Power – the power that stems from access to and control over
information
what’s the effect of power bases
Expert and referent power
● Reward and legitimate power
● Coercive power
● Legitimate power: power to control and use organisational resources to
accomplish organisational goals
what’s the Influence or Power Tactics
Used to translate power bases into specific actions that influence others
Can also result in the accumulation of a power base
what’s the power Tactics for Influencing Others
● Used to translate power bases into specific actions that influence others
● Can also result in the accumulation of a power base
1. Rationalpersuasion:Useoflogicalarguments,factualevidence,reason
2. Inspirationalappeal:Appealtovalues,andideals,therebyarousingenthusiasm
3. Consultation:Seekparticipationinmakingadecision,orinplanningthe
implementation of a policy, change, etc.
4. Ingratiation:Getsomeoneinagoodmoodbeforepriortomakingarequest;
being helpful, using praise or flattery
5. Personalappeal:Referringtofriendshipandloyalty
6. Exchange:Makeexplicitorimplicitpromisesandtradingfavours
7.Legitimating:Basearequestonauthority,organisationalrulesorpolicies
8.Coalition:Seek aido fother sto persuade
9.Pressure:Useofdemands,threats,intimidation
what’s the most effective power tactics
● Most effective:
- Rational persuasion (Upward Influence - UI)
- Ingratiation
- Consultation
- Inspirational appeals (Downward Influence - DI)
● Moderately effective:
- Exchange, Personal appeal (Lateral Influence - LI) ● Least effective:
- Pressure (DI),
- Coalitions (LI)
- Legitimating
● Effectiveness also depends on:
- Direction, sequencing, individual skill, and organisational culture
what was Milgram (1963) studies in obedience
Recruited 40 adult men as subjects
Pairs of subjects “drew lots” for “learner” and “teacher” roles.
Every time the learner made a mistake, the teacher “punished” him with an electric shock, ranging from 15 to 450 Volts
what was Stanford Prison Experiment
Created a mock jail
Randomly assigned roles
Prisoner
Warden
Acted out roles
Guards became sadistic
prisoners depressed and stressed
experimenters became prison officials
what is organisational politics
Organisational politics - Use of power to affect decision making in an organisation or on behaviors by members that are self-serving and organisationally non-sanctioned. They can be legitimate (e.g., complaining) or illegitimate (sabotage)
Politics emerge when there are conflicting goals and interests, limited resources and rules are ambiguous
People use their political skills to protect goals, interests and resources. People with higher political skill are more successful in their use of influence tactics.
in organisational politics what is political skill
Political skill – ability to influence others in such as way as to enhance their own objectives. Behavior includes impression management: ingratiation, self-promotion among many others
what is the consequences of organisational politics
Decreased job satisfaction
Increased anxiety and stress
Increased turnover
Reduced performance
what is impression managment techniques.
Process by which individuals seek to control the impression the others form of them
Self-promotion
Associations
Excuses
Apologies
what is impression management techniques
Flattery
Conformity
Favours
what was the implications of the Stanford prison experiment
● Willingness to accept authority
● Ordinary people follow authority even when going against their moral beliefs
● Subservient attitude
● Role rather than personality critical
● WWII – follow leader even when do not think is right
what are the two types of forces
Change forces
forces that produce differences in the form, quality, or condition of an organization over time
Resistance forces
forces that support the existing state of conditions in organizations
Organizational Decline: The Risk of Not Changing
Weitzel and Jonsson Model of Organisational Decline
Greiners Model of Organisational Growth
THE TURBULENT ENVIRONMENT!!!
Four complementary models of change
Life cycle models:
change viewed as activity following logical sequence that can be planned for.
Emergent
Participative
Political
Lewin’s Three-Step Change Model
-Unfreezing
getting those affected by the change to believe change is needed
-Change and intervention
getting people to change their behaviours
- Refreezing
supporting and reinforcing the new changes so they “stick”
what is Resistance to Change
Some common reasons for individual resistance to change within organisations include:
Conflicts with Self interest (inconvenience, habits, loss of freedom or financial benefits)
Lack of Understanding and Trust (selective perception)
Uncertainty (fear of the unknown )
Differences in Assessment Criteria and Perceived Goals
what is Barriers to Change
Many barriers to change exist at the individual and organizational levels:
- Excessive focus on costs.
- Failure to perceive benefits.
- Lack of coordination and cooperation.
- Uncertainty avoidance.
- Fear of loss.
Methods of Managing Resistance to Change
Education and communication
Change is technical and users need info and analysis to understand change
Participation
Users need to feel involved, design requires info from others and powers to resist
Negotiation
Group has power over implementation and could lose out in the change
Top management support
Involves multiple depts. Or reallocation of resources, users doubt legitimacy of change
Coercion
A crisis exists, initiators clearly have power, other implementation techniques have failed
Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Model
Kotter’s “eight mistakes”:
Too much complacency or lack of urgency
Failure to create a guiding coalition with enough power and available resources
Lack of a clear vision
Not communicating that vision
Allowing roadblocks to block the vision
Not recognizing short term, or smaller, wins
Declaring success too soon
Failure to fully establish changes within the organizational culture
Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Model
Establish a Sense of Urgency
Create the Guiding Coalition
Create a Vision for Change
Communicate the vision
Empower Broad Based Action
Generate Short-Term Wins
Consolidate Gains to Produce More Change
Anchor the change
. Establish the Need for Urgency
Consider possible issues, opportunities, potential (and current) crises
Consider how quick the change is needed to pursue an opportunity or resolve an issue, crisis etc.
- Create a crisis
- Set targets
- Send more data
Develop the Guiding Coalition
Recruit a team of individuals who are capable of administering the change
Employee acceptance from colleagues and/or management
Develop a Change vision
Vision - “general statement of the organisations intended direction that evokes emotional feelings in organisational members
Communicate the Vision for Change
Establish a clear communication pathway
Demonstrate clear understanding of the change process, objectives, vision etc
Remind employees over time
Use many different methods of communication to get the message through
what are the 4 points of Communicate the Vision for Change
- Explain the change, esp. How it will benefit them as an individual
- Be clear
- Aim to avoid negative feedback, suspicion, bad publicity, rumours
- Conduct careful recipient analysis
Involve everyone! (Peters, 1988
what is Empowering Broad-based Action
- Remove obstacles that block change
- Disempower individuals with unrealistic or unattainable goals
- Change systems and structures that undermine the vision
Generating Short-term Wins
- Show the role of earlier successes
- Communicate progress
- Recognize and reward those involved in improvements
- Plan for visible performance improvements
Consolidate Gains to Produce More Change
- Don’t Give Up
- Maintain enthusiasm
- Sustain momentum
- Communicate
. Anchor the change
Make the Change Stick
Embed the change within the organisational culture
Promote and communicate the success of the change
Written into roles, procedures, protocols, rules etc
The traditional western greeting of shaking hands
- It’s part of our culture
- Sign of friendship
- Long history in Europe
- Disadvantages: encourages spread of disease
- Others use left hand to shake, like the scouting organisation (it’s a sign of trust,
friendship and is also used by organisations when people are in uniform) - This originated from Lord Baden Powel and a greeting made by the Ashanti
Chiefs who explained the rationale of dropping the shield held in the left, as a
sign of trust and respectful bravery - This is why it was adopted by scouting, but also bc you accept something with
your right hand and not your left - This is a curiosity of the scouting organisation, a local culture within a national
culture that differed from that national culture - So within a national culture, there are also subcultures that exist
Greetings in Japan
- No bodily contact, you bow to one another to show respect to the other person
- In feudal Japan, there were lower classes and upper classes like the Samurai
- Samurai
off - With eye contact with upper classes, it was
disrespectful and punishable by death - So essentially, when people in Japan bow,
they are avoiding the swing from the sword
of the Samurai - Shazai: lowest form of apology
- If the other person is your boss for example, your bow must be lower than that
person otherwise it’s seen as disrespectful
typically role on horseback and
commanded respect from lower classes, who
had to duck to avoid having head chopped
ARGUMENTS
- ThepoortreatmentofP.O.W’sbytheJapaneseforces
- The Japanese believe that P.O.W’s should not be treated well bc in battle,
surrendering is a sign of cowardice
- In Japanese culture, it is dishonourable to surrender 2. JapanwasdefeatedintheSecondWorldWar
- It was thought that America and its allies should not take forgiveness from a 2nd
World War aggressor such as Japan
- Moreover, many political economists suggested that as America is a superpower
and Japan is not, America has the world’s largest economy
- It’s democratically elected president is therefore superior to an individual who
was born into power and merely inherited their wealth and title, such as Emperor
of Japan
- The general thinking was that the leader of a democratically elected superpower
should therefore not be bowing to a lesser economy that surrendered to that
superpower, and certainly not to somebody who inherited their wealth and title
● In the West, if you dont give someone eye contact when they are talking to you
it’s rude, bc you’re not listening to them
- Whereas in Japan, you do not make eye contact with your superiors, to do so is
deemed to be rude, disrespectful and aggressive
● Explicit and subtle differences
- UK drive on left bc of horseriding and carrying weapons (we need our right hands
to draw our swords from the left) - same as Japan
- Sweden used to drive on left but switched in 1967 to fall in line with its european
neighbours
Organisational Culture Definitions:
“… the unique configuration of norms, values, beliefs, ways of behaving and so on, that characterise the manner in which groups and individuals combine to get things done” (Eldridge & Crombie, 1974)
- “Organisations are as different and varied as nations and societies of the world. They have differing cultures – sets of values and norms and beliefs – reflected in different structures and systems” (Handy, 1993)
- “A set of beliefs, values, and assumptions that are shared by members of an organisation “
why culture matters
● The assumptions and beliefs of employees drive behaviour
● The collective behaviour of employees determines results
● The results measure performance and indicate if strategic business objectives
have been achieved
HOFSTEDE’S 1980 DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE DIFFERENCE
● Power Distance
- The extent to which members of a society accept that power is distributed unequally
● Uncertainty Avoidance
- How threatened people feel by ambiguous situations
● Individualism
- The extent to which people believe their primary concern is themselves and their immediate family
Masculinity
- The extent to which visible success, money and possessions is given priority over nurturing and sharing
THE CULTURE ICEBERG
● Culture in university for example, graduation ceremonies, slogans - Then there’s things you don’t see: values and attitudes
● What we believe inform what we say
● What we say also informs what we believe
FORMS OF CULTURAL ARTEFACTS
● Language
- E.g: jargon or company speak
● Myths
- Stories intended as symbols - morality tales or value indicators ● Rituals
- Routinised activities that maintain the culture
● Ceremonies
- Formal celebrations of values
● Norms
- Expected behaviours occurring in particular situations
● Workspace design
- E.g: office layout, office design, parking spaces
EXAMPLE: POLICE UNIFORM
● Symbols = uniform
● Behaviour = law/rules
● Attitudes and beliefs = uphold the law, keep the peace
● Symbols = rank
Role Culture (Handy, 2009)
Bureaucracy: logic and rationality functions (pillars) co-ordinated and controlled by senior management (pediment)
● Rules, procedures, promotion on performance
● Stable environment, economies of scale
● Weakness - slow to react to change
● Example of role culture: university
Task Culture
● Specific projects, power at interstices, diffuse and based on expertise
● Need teams and resources, flexible. Competitive markets, short product life
spans & constant innovation
● Weakness - lack economies of scale, rely on quality of people, may transform &
morale falls
Power Culture
● Control from centre
● Failure: size and inappropriate personnel, poor coordination, low morale, high
staff turnover and inappropriate strategy
Person Culture
● The person deems themselves more important than the organisation
● Group organises on collective basis, share costs, decide own work allocation,
share influence
● Loose affiliation to the organisation
- Examples: barristers, doctors, architects, R&D department
Culture, Market and Strategy
Bureaucratic culture has more of an internal focus
Clan culture focuses on external expectations Adaptability focuses on external environment through customer needs
Mission culture has an emphasis on clear vision sports team for example (clear vision is to win the match/league)
Functions of Culture
● Has a boundary defining role
● Promotes a sense of identity
● Fosters commitment
● Ensures the stability of the social system
● Works as a controlling mechanism
Culture Development
● Starts with founder’s vision
● Selection
● Top management role modelling
● Socialisation
Are Strong Cultures Desirable?
YES
● Enhance integration
● Act like moral glue
● Espoused values act as
guidelines for decision making
● Fundamental when the link
between individual actions and outcomes are uncertain
NO
● Inward looking
● Conformist, complacent
● Can lead to groupthink rather
than critical thinking
● Not necessarily good for
changing environments
Barriers Created by Organisational Culture
● Barrier to change
● Barrier to diversity
● Barrier to acquisition and mergers
