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Medicine - Finals > Opthalmology > Flashcards

Opthalmology Flashcards

1
Q

What are some common colour changes that may be seen in the eyes due to pathology?

A

Red (bleeding, inflammation)
Blue (thinning of sclera - RA, osteogenesis imperfecta)
Yellow (jaundice)
Brown/black (pigmentation)

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2
Q

What are the main ‘red flag’ features of a red eye?

A

Impaired vision
Pain/photophobia
Lack of ocular discharge (if discharge present, more likely to be infection like conjunctivitis)

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3
Q

What kind of ocular pathology causes rapid onset of visual loss?

A 
Central retinal artery occlusion (cherry red spot in macula) - e.g. amaurosis fugax
Central retinal vein occlusion
Giant cell arteritis
Retinal detachment
Vitreous haemorrhage
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4
Q

What kind of ocular pathologies cause slow onset loss of vision?

A

Degenerative causes, e.g. Age-related macular degeneration

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5
Q

What is acute angle closure glaucoma?

A

Rare but serious cause of red eye

Associated with raised IOP (>21 mmHg)

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6
Q

Give 3 RFs for acute angle closure glaucoma

A

1) Hypermetropia (long-sightedness)
2) Increase in age
3) Pupillary dilatation (i.e. pain comes on sitting in the cinema watching a movie)

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7
Q

What are the symptoms of acute angle closure glaucoma?

A 
Severe pain (eye pain or headache)
Decrease in visual acuity
Worse with dilated pupil (TV in dark room)
Red eye
Haloes around lights
Systemic upset (N+V, abdo pain)
Photophobia
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8
Q

What are the signs of acute angle closure glaucoma?

A

Red eye
Semi-dilated, non-reacting pupil
Corneal oedema
Poor visual acuity

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9
Q

What type of visual loss does acute angle closure glaucoma cause?

A

Peripheral visual field deficits

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10
Q

How is acute angle closure glaucoma investigated?

A 
Slit lamp examination
Gonioscopy
Automated perimetry (to assess visual field)
Measure IOP
Visual field loss on assessment
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11
Q

How is acute glaucoma managed?

A

Urgent referral to ophthalmology
1) Lower the pressure (topical beta blockers [timolol] + carbonic anhydrase inhibitor [PO/IV acetazolamide])

2) Constrict the pupil (pilocarpine drops - topical cholinergic agonist)
3) Prevent recurrence (laser iridotomy - hole in iris)

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12
Q

Give 2 drugs that can be used to reduce IOP in acute angle closure glaucoma

A

Timolol (topical beta blocker)

Acetazolamide (PO/IV carbonic anhydrase inhibitor)

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13
Q

What is the definitive treatment for acute angle closure glaucoma?

A

Laser iridotomy

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14
Q

What is chronic glaucoma/primary open angle glaucoma?

A

Progressive optic neuropathy associated with visual field loss and raised IOP

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15
Q

What are the RFs for chronic glaucoma?

A 
Increasing age
Fix
Myopia (short-sightedness)
Hypertension
Diabetes mellitus
Afro-Caribbean origin
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16
Q

What are the clinical features of chronic glaucoma?

A

Triad of:

1) Raised IOP (>21 mmHg)
2) Abnormal disc
3) Visual field defect (tunnel vision)

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17
Q

What are the symptoms of chronic glaucoma?

A

Decreased peripheral vision (nasal scotoma leading to tunnel vision)

Insidious onset
Often asymptomatic
Routine finding during opticians appointment
Decreased visual acuity

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18
Q

How is chronic glaucoma investigated?

A 
Fundoscopy
Automated perimetry (assess visual fields)
Slit lamp examination
Automated tonometry (measure IOP)
Gonioscopy (checks drainage angle)
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19
Q

What are the signs of chronic glaucoma on fundoscopy?

A 
Optic disc cupping (Cup:Disc ratio >0.66)
Optic disc pallor (optic atrophy)
Bayonetting of vessels
Cup notching
Disc haemorrhage
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20
Q

How is chronic glaucoma treated? Give a side effects each.

A

Eye drops!

1) Latanoprost (prostaglandin analogues)
2) Timolol (BB)

S/E:
latanoprost - increased eyelash length
timolol - watch out in asthmatics and heart failure (drains to nose - very vascularised)

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21
Q

What is age-related macular degeneration (ARMD)?

A

Most common cause of blindness in the UK

Degeneration of the central retina (macula)

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22
Q

What is the epidemiology of ARMD?

A

Females > males

Avg age of presentation >70 yrs

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23
Q

What are the RFs for ARMD?

A 
Increasing age
Smoking
FHx
HTN
Dyslipidaemia
DM
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24
Q

What are the symptoms of ARMD?

A 
Central visual loss
Wavy lines (distortion of line perception)
Poor night vision
Flickering/flashing objects
Glare around objects
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25
Q

Wet vs Dry ARMD.
Which is more common?
What is a key feature of each?
Which carries the worse prognosis?

A

Dry:
90% cases
Asociated with DRUSEN in Bruch’s membrane

Wet
10% cases
Choroidal neurovascularisation
Worse prognosis

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26
Q

Give 3 investigations done in ARMD?

A

1) Gold standard = Slit lamp microscopy with colour fundus photography

Ocular coherence tomography (OCT)
Fluorescein angiography (looking for neovascularisation - wet ARMD)
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27
Q

What will be seen on fundoscopy in someone with:

a) Dry ARMD?
b) Wet ARMD?

A

a) Dry: Drusen in Bruch’s membrane

b) Well-demarcated red patches (haemorrhages)

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28
Q

How is dry ARMD managed?

A

Vitamins ACE to Z
(vitamin A, C, E and zinc)

Maybe blind registration and visual aids

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29
Q

How is wet ARMD managed?

A

Anti-VEGF infections (e.g. ranibizumab)

Slows/prevents progression of neovascularisation

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30
Q

What is the leading cause of blindness worldwide?

A

Cataracts

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31
Q

What are cataracts?

A

Lens gradually opacifies
More difficult for light to reach retina
Leads to decreased visual acuity and blurred vision

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32
Q

Give some causes of cataracts

A 
Normal ageing (most common)
Smoking, Alcohol, DM
Trauma
STEROIDS
Radiation, metabolic disorders
Congenital (e.g. due to TORCH infections)
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33
Q

How does the type/classification of cataract relate to its cause?

A

Nuclear - old age
Polar - inherited
Subcapsular - Steroid use
Dot opacities - common in normal lenses, also seen in diabetes and myotonic dystrophy

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34
Q

What are the symptoms of cataracts?

A 
Gradual onset
Decrease in vision
Faded colour vision
Flare (lights brighter than normal)
Haloes around lights
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35
Q

What hallmark sign of cataracts can be elicited on examination?

A

Defect in/loss of red reflex

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36
Q

What investigations need to be done for cataracts?

A

1) Opthalmoscopy on DILATED PUPIL (normal fundus, normal optic nerve)
2) Slit lamp examination (shows visible cataracts)

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37
Q

How are cataracts managed?

A

Conservative (stronger glasses, encourage use of brighter lighting)

SURGERY = definitive Rx. Phacoemulsification - remove cloudy lens and replace with an artificial one.

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38
Q

What are some possible complications of cataract surgery?

A

Posterior capsule opacification (thickening of lens capsule)
Retinal detachment
Posterior capsule rupture
Endophthalmitis (inflammation of aqueous +/or vitreous humour)

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39
Q

What is vitreous detachment?

A

Precursor to retinal detachment

Also causes flashes and floaters

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40
Q

What is retinal detachment?

A

Sudden, painless loss of vision

Holes/tears in retina allow fluid to separate the sensory retina from the visual pigmented epithelium

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41
Q

Where will the visual loss be in a superior retinal detachment?

A

Inferior field loss

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42
Q

Give 6 RFs for retinal detachment

A 
Myopia 
Cataract surgery
Diabetes
Hypertension
Trauma
Vasculitis
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43
Q

How does retinal detachment present?

A

Straight lines appear curved
Flashes + Floaters
Fall in acuity (painless)
Field loss (veil/curtain loss)

Complain of seeing ‘spider webs’

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44
Q

What investigations are done for retinal detachment?

A

B-scan USS = best test - flying-angel sign
Ophthalmoscopy
Fundoscopy - Schaffer’s sign
Slit lamp examination - billowing
Showing: grey, opalescent retina which balloons forwards

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45
Q

How is retinal detachment managed?

A 
Urgent referral to ophthalmology
Rest
Positioned according to location of detachment 
Laser therapy
Urgent surgery
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46
Q

What is vitreous haemorrhage?

A

Bleeding into areas around the vitreous humour

Causes SUDDEN PAINLESS LOSS OF VISION

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47
Q

Give 6 RFs for vitreous haemorrhage

A 
Diabetes
Bleeding disorders
Retinal tear/detachment
Trauma
CRVO which has neovascularised
Wet ARMD
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48
Q

What are the symptoms of vitreous haemorrhage?

A

Small bleed = floaters, dark spots

Large bleed = obscured/ complete loss of vision

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49
Q

What are the signs of vitreous haemorrhage on examination?

A

Absent red reflex

Retina not visible

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50
Q

What investigations should be done for vitreous haemorrhage?

A

Fundoscopy
B-scan (specialised eye USS)
Eye examination showing decreased visual acuity

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51
Q

How is vitreous haemorrhage managed?

A

Usually spontaneously resorbs

If dense/severe = vitrectomy to remove the blood

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52
Q

What is a central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO)?

A

Form a stroke

Dramatic visual loss within seconds of occlusion
Acuity limited to finger counting or worse
Less common than CRVO

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53
Q

Give 6 RFs for central retinal artery occlusion

A 
Thromboembolic/vascular disease
Arteritis (e.g. GCA)
AF
Heart valve disease
Diabetes
Smoking
Hyperlipidaemia
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54
Q

What are the features of CRAO?

A

Sudden painless loss of vision

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55
Q

What are the signs of CRAO?

A

Marcus-Gunn pupil (relative afferent pupil defect - RAPD)

Signs on fundoscopy:

1) White retina
2) Cherry red spot on macula

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56
Q

How is CRAO managed?

A 
Treat as stroke - local stroke protocol
Immediate CT head
Exclude GCA (ESR)
Intraocular hypotensives (acetazolamide)
Decrease IOP by ocular massage

Long term = address CV RFs to reduce risk of recurrence

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57
Q

What is central retinal vein occlusion?

A

Sudden, painless LOV

More common than CRAO

58
Q

What are 6 RFs/ causes of CRVO?

A 
Glaucoma
Polycythaemia
Hypertension
Diabetes mellitus
Increasing age
Vascular disease
59
Q

What are the symptoms of CRVO?

A

Sudden painless loss of vision

Severe drop in acuity

60
Q

What are the signs of CRVO on fundoscopy?

A 
Cotton wool spots
Swollen optic nerve
Macular oedema
Severe retinal haemorrhage
Tortuous and engorged retinal veins

‘cheese and tomato pizza appearance’

61
Q

How is CRVO managed?

A

Call ophthalmology urgently
Intra-vitreal anti-VEGF therapy
Dexamethasone implants

62
Q

What are some complications of CRVO?

A

Neovascularisation

Chronic macular oedema

63
Q

What is optic neuritis?

A

Inflammation of the optic nerve

64
Q

What are the causes of optic neuritis?

A 
MS = most common
Syphilis
Diabetes
Leber's optic atrophy (hereditary visual loss)
Vitamin deficiency
65
Q

What are the symptoms of optic neuritis?

A

Unilateral, subacute LOV
Pain on eye movement
Dyschromatopsia (poor colour vision discrimination)

66
Q

What are the signs of optic neuritis?

A

Marcus-Gunn pupil (RAPD - seen on swinging light test)
Central scotoma (areas of depressed vision)
Decrease in visual acuity on eye examination

67
Q

How is optic neuritis managed?

A

HIGH DOSE STEROIDS

  • IV methylprednisolone for 72 hours
  • then oral pred for 11 days

MRI if ?MS

Most make a full recovery within 2-6 weeks

68
Q

What is retinitis pigmentosa?

A

Inherited degeneration of the retina
More common in males
Can be inherited AD, AR, or X-linked

69
Q

What are the features of retinitis pigmentosa?

A 
NIGHT BLINDNESS = first sign
Tunnel vision
Central daytime visual loss follows
Eventual blindness
FHx
70
Q

Which diseases are associated with retinitis pigmentosa?

A

Usher syndrome - most common, affects hearing and vision

Alport syndrome - kidney disease, hearing loss, eye abnormalities

etc

71
Q

What are the signs of retinitis pigmentosa on fundoscopy?

A

Mottling

Black bone spicule shaped pigmentation in peripheral retina

72
Q

How can retinitis pigmentosa be managed?

A

Visual aids and blind registration
Electrical stimulation of retinal ganglion cells
Novel therapies (neural prosthetics)

73
Q

What is diabetic retinopathy?

A

Microangiopathy causing damage to small blood vessels of retina (result of hyperglycaemia)

Causes gradual decrease in CENTRAL vision

74
Q

How can diabetic retinopathy be classified?

A

1) Background
2) Pre-proliferative
3) Proliferative
4) Advanced

75
Q

What are the features of ‘background’ diabetic retinopathy?

A

Dots, blots and spots:

1) Microaneurysms (dots)
2) Blot haemorrhages (= 3)
3) Hard exudates

76
Q

Features of pre-proliferative diabetic retinopathy?

A

1) Cotton wool spots - dead nerve cells
2) >3 blot haemorrhages
3) Venous beading/looping
4) Dark cluster haemorrhages

More common in T1DM

77
Q

What are ‘cotton wool spots’? What condition are they seen in?

A

Dead nerve cells

Seen in pre-proliferative diabetic retinopathy and hypertensive retinopathy

78
Q

What is the key feature of proliferative diabetic retinopathy?
Why does this occur?

A

Retinal neovascularisation - due to insufficient retinal perfusion and subsequent ^production of VEGF

79
Q

Give 4 complications of advanced diabetic retinopathy

A

1) Recurrent vitreous haemorrhage (from bleeding areas of neovascularisation)
2) Retinal detachments
3) Rubeosis (neovascularisation occurs at iris)
4) Progressive glaucoma

80
Q

How is diabetic retinopathy treated?

A

Good glycaemic control
Laser treatment
Intravitreal steroids
Anti-VEGF

81
Q

What is diabetic maculopathy?

A

Hard exudates + other ‘background changes’ on the macula
Check visual acuity
More common in T2DM
Rx: laser therapy

82
Q

What is hypertensive retinopathy?
Symptoms?
Cause?

A

Eye disease/damage from hypertension

Usually asymptomatic. May cause reduced visual acuity and headaches.

Can occur from chronic, poorly controlled hypertension or malignant hypertension

83
Q

What may cause accelerated hypertensive retinopathy?

A 
Exacerbation of essential HTN
Intrinsic renal disease
Renal artery stenosis
Phaeochromocytoma
Cushing's and Conn's
84
Q

Give 4 features of hypertensive retinopathy seen on fundoscopy?

A

Arteriovenous nipping (Grade II)
Flame haemorrhages
Cotton wool spots
Papilloedema (Grade IV)

85
Q

What are the Keith-Wagener classification stages of hypertensive retinopathy?

A

Stage I - arteriolar narrowing + tortuosity, increased silver light reflex (silver wiring)
Stage II - arteriovenous nipping
Stage III - spots, dots and blots (cotton wool spots, exudates, flame haemorrhages)
Stage IV - papilloedema

86
Q

What are some other causes of poor vision in hypertension?

A

Acute optic nerve damage
Macular oedema
Retinal artery closure/occlusion
Choroidal ischaemia

87
Q

How is hypertensive retinopathy managed?

A

Control hypertension
Manage stroke risk
Regular eye checks for hypertensive patients - at least yearly

88
Q

Red eye. What is subconjunctival haemorrhage?

A

Bleeding beneath the conjunctiva - several small fragile vessels that are easily ruptured/broken

89
Q

Red eye. Give 4 features of subconjunctival haemorrhage?

A

Sudden onset
Bright red blood (stays bright red as Hb easily oxygenated from the atmosphere)
Distinct border
Blood spreads freely so small haemorrhage can easily cover the whole globe

90
Q

Red eye. What are the causes of subconjunctival haemorrhage?

A 
Trauma to the eye
Heavy bouts of coughing
Contact lenses
Hypertension
Bleeding disorders
Diabetes mellitus
CHD/vascular disease
Medications - warfarin, aspirin, NSAIDs, steroids
Febrile systemic infections
May occur spontaneously in the elderly
91
Q

How is subconjunctival haemorrhage managed?

A

Conservative (no official Rx required)

May want to look for orbital/ocular injury if caused by trauma

92
Q

What is anterior uveitis?

A

aka Iritis
Important differential of a red eye
Painful red eye with decreased visual acuity

93
Q

Give 3 conditions associated with anterior uveitis

A

1) Seronegative arthropathies (HLA B27) e.g. ank spond, psoriatic arthritis, enteropathic arthritis, IBD
2) Granulomatous disease, e.g. sarcoidosis, syphilis
3) Behcet’s disease: mouth + genital ulcers, skin rashes, etc

94
Q

Give 5 symptoms of anterior uveitis?

A

1) acute, painful red eye
2) unilateral
3) photophobia
4) blurred vision
5) lacrimation

95
Q

Give 5 signs of anterior uveitis

A

Intense redness of the globe
Normal/decreased acuity
Irregular small pupil
Hypopyon (pus in outer chamber - looks like white dots, visible fluid level)
Ciliary flush (ring of red and purple spreading out from cornea)

96
Q

What is the name for the collection of white cells seen in the outer chamber of the eye in anterior uveitis? What is it?

A

Hypopyon

Collection of pus and inflammatory cells

97
Q

How is anterior uveitis managed?

A

1) Dilate eye to relieve pain and photophobia (Atropine or cyclopentolate)
2) Urgent r/v by ophthalmology
3) Steroid eye drops

98
Q

What is episcleritis? Key features? Rx?

A

Common, benign, mild irritation of the eye.
Localised redness
Watery, mild photophobia
No discharge or loss of vision
Rx: NSAIDS if pain, if needed - eyedrops to ease irritation

99
Q

How do you differentiate between episcleritis and scleritis?

A

Scleritis is PAINFUL (episcleritis is not)

Phenylephrine drops - will not blanch the scleral vessels, so if eye redness improves after phenylephrine then diagnosis of episcleritis can be made

100
Q

What is scleritis?

A

Rare, serious condition. Associated with SLE, RA, any form of vasculitis

People with RA may also have blue sclera

101
Q

What are the key features of scleritis?

Rx?

A

V painful red eye
Loss of vision, watering, photophobia

Rx: Oral NSAIDs, oral prednisolone, cyclophosphamide (to tackle causative vasculitis)

102
Q

What are the complications of scleritis?

A 
Scleral thinning
Ischaemia of the anterior segment of the globe
Raised IOP
Retinal detachment
Uveitis
Cataract
Phthisis (globe atrophy)
103
Q

What is keratitis?

Most common cause?

A

Infection/inflammation of the cornea

Herpes simplex virus

104
Q

How does HSV (herpes) keratitis tend to present?

A

DENDRITIC SHAPE corneal ulcer

Red, painful eye
Photophobia
Epiphora (excessive eye watering)
Decreased visual acuity (sometimes)
Foreign body sensation
105
Q

Investigations for HSV keratitis?

A

Fluorescein staining to look for dendritic ulcer

106
Q

How is HSV keratitis managed?

A

Urgent referral to ophthalmology
Topical acyclovir

AVOID STEROIDS

107
Q

Why is it important to avoid steroids in HSV keratitis?

A

Can cause enlargement of the dendritic ulcer

108
Q

What is a corneal abrasion? How does it present?

A

Any defect of corneal epithelium.
Most commonly occurs following trauma
Features: pain, photophobia, foreign body sensation, decreased acuity, conjunctival injection

109
Q

How is corneal abrasion investigated?

A

Fluorescein staining + slit lamp examination

Yellow-stained abrasion will show up

110
Q

How is corneal abrasion managed?

A

Topical antibiotics to prevent bacterial superinfection (e.g. Chloramphenicol)

111
Q

What is a corneal ulcer?

A

Corneal epithelium defect (abrasion) with underlying inflammation/infection

112
Q

Causes/RFs for corneal ulcer?

A

Contact lenses
Infection with bacteria, fungi, viruses, etc
Can be initiated by mechanical trauma or nutritional deficiencies

113
Q

Give 3 features of corneal ulcer

A

Eye pain
Photophobia
Watery eye

114
Q

Investigations for corneal ulcer?

A

Focal fluorescein staining

115
Q

How do you manage a corneal ulcer?

A

Stop contact lenses for 1 week
Cool compress
Good hygiene (no sharing towels, wash hands, avoid eye make up)
Topical Abs - Chloramphenicol

116
Q

What is conjunctivitis, and what are the 3 main types?

A 
Inflammation of conjunctiva.
3 main causes: 
1) Viral
2) Bacterial
3) Allergic

Also think about reactive arthritis (can’t see, can’t spee, can’t climb a tree)

117
Q

What are the general features of conjunctivitis?

A

Sore, red eyes

Sticky discharge

118
Q

Features of bacterial conjunctivitis?
Common causative organisms?
Rx?

A

Purulent discharge, starts unilateral and spreads to bilateral

Staph/strep/haemopilus/neisseria/chlamydia

Self-limiting. General advice (no contact lenses, don’t share towels, no need for school exclusion).

May give chloramphenicol (or fusidic acid if pregnant)

119
Q

Features of viral conjunctivitis?
Common cause?
Management?

A

Serous discharge, recurrent URTI, pre-auricular lymphadenopathy

Adenovirus

Self-limiting. Oral analgesia + eye drops (symptomatic relief). General advice (lenses, towels, no school exclusion)

120
Q

Features of allergic conjunctivitis?

Management?

A

Often seen with hayfever. Hx atopy etc. Swollen eyelids. Large papillae.

1st line: topical/systemic antihistamines
2nd line: topical mast-cell stabilisers (sodium cromoglicate)

121
Q

What is non-arteritic ischaemic neuropathy?

Important differential

A

Ageing process assoc w/ poor blood supply to optic nerve. See swollen optic disc but NOT associated with inflammation.

Key Ddx: GCA

122
Q

Complications of non-arteritic ischaemic neuropathy?

A

Diplopia

Emboli can cause central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO)

123
Q

How is non-arteritic ischaemic neuropathy managed?

A

High dose steroids

IV methypred 3 days, then oral pred

124
Q

Features of Horner’s?

A

Miosis (constricted pupil)
Ptosis
Anhidrosis (lack of sweat)
Enophthalmos (eye retracts into head)

125
Q

What are 4 causes of Horner’s?

A

Central: Stroke, MS
Pre-ganglionic: Pancoast tumour
Post-ganglionic: Carotid artery dissection

126
Q

Management of Horner’s?

A

Treat underlying disease

127
Q

Give 3 eye diseases associated with rheumatoid arthritis

A

Scleritis
Episcleritis
Secondary Sjogren’s with sicca complex (dry eyes)

128
Q

What are the causes of papilloedema?

A 
SOL
Malignant hypertension
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension
Hydrocephalus
Hypercapnia

Rarer (hypoparathyroidism, hypocalcaemia, vitamin A toxicity)

129
Q

Give 6 features of papilloedema on fundoscopy

A 
Venous engorgement
Loss of venous pulsation
Blurring of optic disc margin
Elevation of optic disc
Loss of optic cup
Paton's lines (concentric/radial retinal lines cascading from the optic disc)
130
Q

Give 6 causes of tunnel vision

A 
Papilloedema
Glaucoma
Retinitis pigmentosa
Choridoretinitis
Optic atrophy
Hysteria
131
Q

What is optic atrophy?

A

PALE optic disc on fundoscopy
Well demarcated
Usually bilateral
Causes gradual visual loss

132
Q

What are some acquired causes of optic atrophy?

A 
MS
Papilloedema (chronic)
Raised IOP (glaucoma, tumour)
Retinal damage (retinitis pigmentosa)
Ischaemia
Vitamin deficiencies (B1, B2, B6, B12)
133
Q

What are some congenital causes of optic atrophy?

A

Freidrich’s ataxia (AR)

Leber’s optic atrophy (mitochondrial inheritance)

134
Q

3 differentials for lump in eyelid?

A

Stye
Chalazion
BCC

135
Q

2 different types of lid positioning problems?

A

Entropion (needs surgical correction - eyelashes can cause scarring)

Ectropion

136
Q

What are the 7 key causes of red eye?

A 
Acute angle closure glaucoma
Scleritis
Anterior uveitis (iritis)
Keratitis
Periorbital cellulitis
137
Q

Give 2 causes of floaters

A

Posterior vitreous detachment
Retinal detachment
Diabetic retinopathy

138
Q

What 3 investigations would you do in retinal detachment, and what would you see?

A

1) Fundus photography - Schaffer’s sign (pigment in anterior vitreous)
2) Ophthalmoscopy
3) B-mode USS - flying angel sign

139
Q

2 causes of retinal detachment?

A

Retinal tears
Trauma
Recent cataract surgery

140
Q

What are the DVLA requirements for vision?

A

Need combined visual acuity of at least 0.5 (6/12)

Medicine - Finals (13 decks)

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