Opposition Flashcards
What was the first form of opposition to Fascism?
Matteotti (1924)
Who were the Rosselli brothers?
- Carlo and Nello Rosselli.
- Came from a wealthy Tuscan family.
- After a period in the army and uni, both became lecturers.
- Became increasingly horrified by Fascist violence.
Who was the more politically radical Rosselli brother?
- Carlo.
- joined the PSI and after 1922 participated in anti-Fascist organisations & spread anti-Fascist propaganda.
Why was Carlo Rosselli arrested in December 1926?
Helped opponents escape to exile but was arrested.
Sentenced to 5 years imprisonment on Lipari island.
When did Carlo escape?
July 1929. Then fled to paris.
When was Nello arrested?
Briefly arrested in 1927 & remained under police surveillance.
What was the anti-Fascist group set up by Carlo?
- Justice and Liberty (GL)
- set up in Paris
What did GL do?
- they publicised conditions in Italy
- smuggled propaganda leaflets into Italy
- helped secret activity in Italy
What else did Carlo do?
- When the Italian govt sent troops to fight Franco in SCW, he helped organise 30k anti-Fascist Italians to join an anti-Fascist crusade in Spain.
- Made radio broadcasts to Italy c. their struggle, claiming “Today in Spain; tomorrow in Italy”.
What was the slogan broadcast by Carlo’s radio channel?
“Today in Spain; tomorrow in Italy”
What did the GL help inflict the defeat on?
- BM’s troops at Guadalajara in March 1937.
- Carlo publicised this humiliation & helped provoke BM’s revenge.
What happened to the Rosselli brothers in June 1937?
They were both murdered by French fascists, acting on Foreign Minister Ciano’s orders.
Anti-Fascist concentration
- Established in Paris 1927
- Mainly Socialists, some Liberals
- Tried to overcome previous divisions; difficult
- Concentrated on informing Europeans of evils of Fascism via conferences and journals
- 1934: dissolved itself, as it was losing support to the more radical GL, & Communist organisations.
Work in exile
- After 1924 many major politicians left Italy
- 1000s of exiles publicised horrors of Fascism abroad, smuggled anti-Fascist lit into Italy, and planned for the overthrow of Fascism
- From 1936 there were 3k anti-Fascist volunteers fighting in Spain
- Italian Garibaldi Legion defeated Italian Fascist troops at Guadalajara, March 1937
What were the exiles called?
Fuorusciti
The Communist Party
- 1926: most leaders arrested, but local party cells, & newspaper “Unita” survived illegally
- 2k to 8k members
- Some success in N in infiltrating factories & TUs to foment strikes and demos
- Helped by Soviet money but Comintern policy (1928-34) of non-collaboration w/ other anti-F groups limited its impact
- 1930s: Depression & new popular front policy meant it attracted more support
- 1943 onwards: major role in resistance movement in N. Italy
Who was Bassanesi?
- GL member
- flew over Milan in July 1930 dropping 100k leaflets urging resistance
- Was a major publicity coup for anti-Fascism
Who was De Bosis?
- taught himself to fly
- In 1931 he dropped 400k leaflets over Rome telling people they should unite with the monarchy against F.
When did De Bosis drop 400k leaflets over Rome?
3rd Oct 1931
GL (Justice and Liberty)
- 1929 founded by CR in Paris
- Tried to galvanise Italians into anti-F action
- Established underground network in Italy, but frequently smashed.
- After the murder of the Rossellis, GL declined; then revived from 1943, during liberation struggle.
The Church
- Despite the Concordat agreement there was later by the Catholic church of:
(i) Fascist pressure on CA (1931)
(ii) racist decrees (1938) - CA organisations remained as potential rivals to F.
The Fascist Party
- F remained a diverse movement, & there was always simmering criticism from some, especially Radicals, e.g. the Concordat
- 1943: majority of Grand Council voted to remove BM from office
The King
- Generally supportive; but privately expressed criticism of actions he saw as threatening his position, and various policies, e.g. racist decrees
- July 1934: dismissed BM
Ethnic minorities
- Periodic protests
- including bomb attacks and murders of policemen
- at imposition of Italian language and culture on German and Slav minorities in Alto Adige & Venezia Giulia
Armed uprising
- 1943 to 1945: Growing resistance movement against German occupation of the N
- Communist guerrillas shot BM, 1945
Assassination attempts
- Various anarchist isolated actions; 4 attempts on BM’s life in 1925 (Rome) & 1926 (Bologna: suspected of being staged to justify 1926 repression)
- 1931: bombs in Turin, Genoa and Bologna
Non-conformity
- Hard to assess but various forms:
(i) refusal to make Fascist salute
(ii) refusal to wear Fascist uniform
(iii) anti-F jokes
(iv) verbal insults
(v) Late 30s non-compliance w/ Reform of Customs
Propaganda
- underground printing of anti-F propaganda
- Secret Press had some success, especially in the N, but periodically disrupted by the police.
- Distribution of anti-F leaflets, w/ instructions to pass on to at least 6 others
- Anti-F slogans on walls
Armed uprisings
- 1943 to 1945: Growing resistance movement against German occupation of the N
- Communist guerrillas shot BM, 1945
Open expression of criticism
- Growing public criticism of F violence, culminating in the murder of Matteotti; increasingly repressed after 1925
- Parliamentary Aventine Secession 1924-25
- Some critical journals survived till 1926; then suppressed; less direct opposition via cultural journals
- Intellectual criticism persisted throughout period, especially from Croce, e.g. Manifesto of Anti-F Intellectuals, 1925
- Elements in elite periodically expressed criticism
Strikes & demos
- declined 1924-25, but periodic illegal strikes:
(a) Turin March 1943 major strike, quickly gained concessions
(b) Bologna 1930 & 1931 protests against closing soup kitchens, & having to pay for medical injections
(c) Trieste 1933 protests about lack of food
(d) Forli 1935 protests demanding public works
-1933: numerous spontaneous demos in N cities w/ slogan “We want bread & jobs”
Why was there so little opposition in Italy?
REASON 1- strength of the govt
REASON 2- attitudes of ordinary people
REASON 3- practical problems
REASON 1- strength of govt
- strong repressive machinery
- popular policies
- propaganda
- popularity of the leader
REASON 2- attitudes of ordinary people
- mass apathy
- careerism
- reluctance to break law
- support for the govt
- fear of the govt
REASON 3- practical reasons
- hard to organise meetings
- hard to spread ideas
