Occupation Glossary

Question 1

Code switching

Answer 1

Alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language available to the speaker, depending on the context

Question 2

Constraints

Answer 2

Ways in which powerful participants block or control contributions of less powerful participants e.g. interruptions

Question 3

Directives

Answer 3

Can be delivered as imperatives, interrogatives or declaratives. Can be mitigated by politeness forms (e.g. would you open your books) Choice of directives may be in response to face wants.

Question 4

Discourse communities

Answer 4

Many occupations communicate using predictable structures and discourses based on the specific discourse community

Question 5

Formulation

Answer 5

The rewarding of another’s contribution by a powerful participant to impose a certain meaning or understanding

Question 6

Ideology

Answer 6

A set of belief systems, attitudes or a world view held by an individual or group

Question 7

Less powerful participant

Answer 7

Those with less status in a given context

Question 8

Power asymmetry

Answer 8

A marked difference in power between two individuals in discourse

Question 9

Power behind discourse

Answer 9

The focus on the social and ideological reasons behind the enactment of power

Question 10

Power in discourse

Answer 10

The ways in which power is manifested through language use

Question 11

Powerful participant

Answer 11

A speaker with a higher status in a given context

Question 12

Repertoire

Answer 12

A range of language features available for speakers to choose from

Question 13

Style shifting

Answer 13

The change in style of speaking based on context

Question 14

Terms of address

Answer 14

Participants may be addressed by professional terms (Dr, Sir etc.), generic terms (e.g. staff, class, pupils) or the use of pronoun choice (you, we etc.)

Question 15

Unequal encounter

Answer 15

Alternative for asymmetrical; highlighting difference in power between two speakers

Question 16

Jargon

Answer 16

Terminology or lexis used in a certain occupation, or for people who share a common interest

Question 17

Restricted occupational lexis

Answer 17

Specialist jargon/vocabulary which is only ever used within a specific occupation

Question 18

Shared occupational lexis

Answer 18

Terms with particular meaning within a specific occupation, but which have different meanings in general usage

Question 19

Generalised occupational lexis

Answer 19

Lexis that was once restricted to occupational contexts, which have now become part of our general discourse, losing their restricted meanings

Question 20

Frequent ‘everyday’ lexis

Answer 20

Language which is part of everyday discourse, used to a high frequency within a specific occupation (e.g. “progress” within teaching)

Question 21

Instrumental power

Answer 21

Power used to maintain and enforce authority

Question 22

Influential power

Answer 22

Power used to influence and persuade others

Question 23

Political power

Answer 23

Power held by those with the backing of the law

Question 24

Social group power

Answer 24

Power held as a result of being a member of a dominant social group

Question 25

Personal power

Answer 25

Power held by individuals as a result of their role with an organistation

Question 26

Positive face

Answer 26

Need to feel valued, liked and appreciated

Question 27

Negative face

Answer 27

The need to not feel imposed on or have their freedom of action threatened

Question 28

Face

Answer 28

A person’s self esteem or emotional needs

Question 29

Zentella (1985)

Answer 29

• There are several functions of code switching:
  1) To hide fluency or memory problems in the second language
  2) Used to mark switching from informal situation (using native language) to formal situations (using second language)
  3) To exert control, especially between parents and children
  4) To align speakers with others in specific situations (e.g. defining oneself as a member of an ethnic group)

Question 30

Brazil

Answer 30

• Investigated rising and falling tones in speech
• Rising tones are more available to the dominant speaker or someone who wants to use them to claim dominance

Question 31

Swales (2011)

Answer 31

• Many occupations have predictable discourse structures and patterns
• Knowing how to communicate within them makes you part of a discourse community
• Has 6 characteristics of a discourse community

Question 32

Swales’ 6 characteristics of a discourse community

Answer 32

• Common goals
• Intercommunication
• Mechanisms
• Genres
• Specific lexis
• Members of expertise

Question 33

Johnson (2000)

Answer 33

• Code-switching also ‘functions to announce specific identities, create certain meanings, and facilitate particular interpersonal relationships’

Question 34

O’Connor and Michael

Answer 34

• Revoicing - when teachers include the student’s response in the subsequent discourse
• Revoicing draws other students’ attention to the comment, shows it’s importance and encourages others to contribute

Question 35

Eric Fringinal (2009)

Answer 35

• Researched the discourse in calls between a Philippines based call centre serving American customers
• Common patterns in language used by staff included specialised terms, 2nd person pronouns and politeness markers

Question 36

The discourse of primary school classroom teaching

Answer 36

• Overt praise and politeness strategies to ‘reward’ children’s contributions and behaviour - positive face
• Simplified lexis to allow easy understanding
• Familiar instructions which draw upon established routines
• High proportion of interrogatives
• Verbal imbalance in MLU (mean length utterance) - teacher dominates turn-taking and length of speech