Occupation Glossary Flashcards
Code switching
Alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language available to the speaker, depending on the context
Constraints
Ways in which powerful participants block or control contributions of less powerful participants e.g. interruptions
Directives
Can be delivered as imperatives, interrogatives or declaratives. Can be mitigated by politeness forms (e.g. would you open your books) Choice of directives may be in response to face wants.
Discourse communities
Many occupations communicate using predictable structures and discourses based on the specific discourse community
Formulation
The rewarding of another’s contribution by a powerful participant to impose a certain meaning or understanding
Ideology
A set of belief systems, attitudes or a world view held by an individual or group
Less powerful participant
Those with less status in a given context
Power asymmetry
A marked difference in power between two individuals in discourse
Power behind discourse
The focus on the social and ideological reasons behind the enactment of power
Power in discourse
The ways in which power is manifested through language use
Powerful participant
A speaker with a higher status in a given context
Repertoire
A range of language features available for speakers to choose from
Style shifting
The change in style of speaking based on context
Terms of address
Participants may be addressed by professional terms (Dr, Sir etc.), generic terms (e.g. staff, class, pupils) or the use of pronoun choice (you, we etc.)
Unequal encounter
Alternative for asymmetrical; highlighting difference in power between two speakers
Jargon
Terminology or lexis used in a certain occupation, or for people who share a common interest
Restricted occupational lexis
Specialist jargon/vocabulary which is only ever used within a specific occupation
Shared occupational lexis
Terms with particular meaning within a specific occupation, but which have different meanings in general usage
Generalised occupational lexis
Lexis that was once restricted to occupational contexts, which have now become part of our general discourse, losing their restricted meanings
Frequent ‘everyday’ lexis
Language which is part of everyday discourse, used to a high frequency within a specific occupation (e.g. “progress” within teaching)
Instrumental power
Power used to maintain and enforce authority
Influential power
Power used to influence and persuade others
Political power
Power held by those with the backing of the law
Social group power
Power held as a result of being a member of a dominant social group
Personal power
Power held by individuals as a result of their role with an organistation
Positive face
Need to feel valued, liked and appreciated
Negative face
The need to not feel imposed on or have their freedom of action threatened
Face
A person’s self esteem or emotional needs
Zentella (1985)
- There are several functions of code switching:
1) To hide fluency or memory problems in the second language
2) Used to mark switching from informal situation (using native language) to formal situations (using second language)
3) To exert control, especially between parents and children
4) To align speakers with others in specific situations (e.g. defining oneself as a member of an ethnic group)
Brazil
- Investigated rising and falling tones in speech
- Rising tones are more available to the dominant speaker or someone who wants to use them to claim dominance
Swales (2011)
- Many occupations have predictable discourse structures and patterns
- Knowing how to communicate within them makes you part of a discourse community
- Has 6 characteristics of a discourse community
Swales’ 6 characteristics of a discourse community
- Common goals
- Intercommunication
- Mechanisms
- Genres
- Specific lexis
- Members of expertise
Johnson (2000)
- Code-switching also ‘functions to announce specific identities, create certain meanings, and facilitate particular interpersonal relationships’
O’Connor and Michael
- Revoicing - when teachers include the student’s response in the subsequent discourse
- Revoicing draws other students’ attention to the comment, shows it’s importance and encourages others to contribute
Eric Fringinal (2009)
- Researched the discourse in calls between a Philippines based call centre serving American customers
- Common patterns in language used by staff included specialised terms, 2nd person pronouns and politeness markers
The discourse of primary school classroom teaching
- Overt praise and politeness strategies to ‘reward’ children’s contributions and behaviour - positive face
- Simplified lexis to allow easy understanding
- Familiar instructions which draw upon established routines
- High proportion of interrogatives
- Verbal imbalance in MLU (mean length utterance) - teacher dominates turn-taking and length of speech
