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English Language Paper 2 > Gender > Flashcards

Gender Flashcards

1
Q

The deficit model

A

A form of language is lacking or deficit some quality.
Male speech is perceived as standard and female speech is weak as it doesn’t meet this standard

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2
Q

Otto Jesperson (1922) (Deficit model)

A
  • His work was observational and not based on detailed evidence
  • His study included a chapter titled “The woman” but there was no corresponding chapter for men which shows that male language was the norm
  • Women break off without finishing their sentence
  • Women’s language was “lively chatter”
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3
Q

Robin Lakoff (1975) (Deficit model)

A
  • Language and woman’s place (1975)
    Ways women speak different to men:
  • Use tag questions (… “don’t you?”)
  • Hypercorrect grammar and punctuation
  • Hedge (“sort of” “kind of”)
  • speak in italics (“so and “very”)
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4
Q

The difference approach

A

Differences in communication between men and women.

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5
Q

Pennebaker (2007) (Difference approach)

A
  • Research alongside Cindy Chung
  • Psychological functions of function words such as pronouns
  • Words can reveal a lot about a person’s personality traits and their roles in the relationship
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6
Q

Brizendene (2006) (Difference approach)

A
  • Wrote a book titled “The Female Brain”
  • Female behaviour is different from men’s behaviour due to difference in hormone regulation
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7
Q

Deborah Cameron (Difference approach)

A
  • Difference is a myth
  • ‘What language barrier?” (2007) - many language and gender theories are based on the myth that men and women communicate differently
  • Gender stereotypes in advertising
  • Against the difference approach - no innate differences in male and female speech
  • “verbal hygiene” (1995) “clean up” language
  • Myths have acted to shape our expectation of men and women and promote further myth making
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8
Q

Deborah Tannen (Difference approach)

A
  • Women are more cooperative and men are more competitive in conversation
  • Coined the term “genderlect”
  • Established “six contrasts” in her book (1990) e.g. status vs supporting, information vs feelings, conflict vs compromise
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9
Q

Judith Baxter (Difference approach)

A
  • Believes women are just as capable as being powerful as men
  • The notion of power in the workplace - women can have leadership roles
  • The concept of double-voicing reflects the idea that women are more aware than men that the people they are interacting with have other agendas and women adjust this language to reflect this knowledge
  • E.g. “you have probably thought about this already but…”
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10
Q

Rosalind Wiseman

A
  • Believes there can be hidden aggression in all female groups
  • Not all women are nurturers
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11
Q

Jennifer Coates (1989) (Difference approach)

A
  • Girls and boys tend to belong to the same-sex friendship group when growing up, developing different styles of speaking
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12
Q

Folk linguistics

A

The result of mixing of beliefs and practices of language based solely on uniformed speculation instead of scientific evidence
Ideology and religion often serve as a foundation
The act of attributing false etymological roots of words based on unsubstantiated ideas or assumption of words being related

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13
Q

Jackendoff (2003) (Folklinguistics)

A
  • Many false claims of folk linguistics remain somewhat consisted
  • Children only learn language from their parents
  • Children will get confused if you raise them bilingual
  • There is a “proper” way to speak English and it is losing its prestige
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14
Q

Victoria DeFrancisco (Folklinguistics)

A
  • Men interrupt more than women
  • Women hold listening in higher regard
  • Men associate conversational dominance with masculinity
  • Women are better at turn taking than men
  • Women introduce more topics and work harder to maintain conversation but were less successful
  • 70% of delayed responses and 68% of “no responses” came from men - they controlled the discourse (challenges the folklinguistic assumption that more talk means dominance)
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15
Q

The dominance approach

A
  • Suggests language is patriarchal and has been made by men in such a way as to ensure their continued dominance
  • Says that men dominate women in language
  • Expressing an opinion isn’t considered feminine
  • Women have been systematically silenced through forms of language
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16
Q

Dale Spender (Dominance approach)

A
  • Wrote “man made language” in 1980
  • “Man made language” suggests language is under male control
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17
Q

Zimmerman and West (1975) (Dominance approach)

A
  • Research in a college community analysing same-sex and mixed-sex conversations
  • 11 conversations - 46 interruptions from men - 2 interruptions from women
  • In mixed-sex conversations, men were responsible for 96% of the interruptions
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18
Q

Geoffrey Beattie (1982) (Dominance approach)

A
  • Criticised Zimmerman and West
  • Says men and women interrupted equally (90%)
  • 10 hours of conversations between men and women
  • 557 total interruptions (both genders interrupted with roughly equal frequency)
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19
Q

Pamela Fishman (Dominance approach)

A
  • Believes women use questions because they have power not uncertainty (challenging Robin Lakoff’s view)
  • “shitwork” women do the hard work in conversation

STUDY IN 1970S:
- 3 American couples
- Men controlled recordings of conversations
- Men tried to control how Fishman interpreted the recordings
- Women asked 3x as many questions and were more engaged in conversation

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20
Q

William Little (2012) (Performance approach)

A
  • Gender norms vary based on different cultures
  • Gender may not be universal
  • Studies show that children are aware of gender roles as early as 2-3 years
  • Children will most likely choose to play with toys that are related to their gender
  • Parents often offer more positive feedback for conforming to the typical gender norms associated with society
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21
Q

Judith Butler (1990) (Performance approach)

A
  • Wrote a book called “Gender Trouble” (1990)
  • Gender is not biological but performative
  • Gender is often produced by creating and defining characteristics of a person
  • Gender is reproduced not only through language but what we do e.g. how we dress
22
Q

Raewyn Connell’s theory of masculinity

A
  • Released a book called “masculinity”
  • Argues there is not one masculinity
  • What is considered “masculine” differs by race, class, ethnicity, sexuality and gender
23
Q

Theory of gender order (Connell)

A

The gender order of a society as a historically constructed pattern of power relations between men and women

24
Q

Connell (1980s)

A
  • Developed a social theory of gender relations
  • Gender is a large-scale social structure not just a matter of personal identity
25
Q

Mary Talbot

A
  • Gender is socially constructed
  • People admire characteristics which are perceived as masculine or feminine
  • Examines language used by women in a variety of speech situations
  • Analysed an article about lipstick which appeared in a 1980s edition of Jackie magazine to show how the reader is made to feel as if she is friends with the text producer (1977)
26
Q

First wave of feminism

A
  • Late 19th and early 20th century
  • Suffragettes movement
  • Legal reforms for single and married women
  • Right to vote
  • More opportunities
27
Q

Second wave of feminism

A
  • Early 1960s (lasted 2 decades)
  • 1973 - right to abortion
  • Contraceptive pill
  • Gay liberation movement
28
Q

Third wave of feminism

A

Political activism, civil rights, social equality
- 1990s to 2010
- Fought to question, reclaim and redefine the ideas, words, and the media that have transmitted ideas about womanhood, gender, beauty etc.

29
Q

Fourth wave of feminism

A
  • 2010s to present day
  • Women’s empowerment
  • LGBTQ+ rights
  • Sexism in the workplace
  • Sexual harassment/violence
30
Q

Milroy and Milroy (1978)

A
  • Men are more likely to use non-standard forms than women
  • Male unemployment meant more women in working roles so more women picked up non-standard forms
31
Q

O’Barr and Atkins (1980)

A
  • 150 hours of court proceedings
  • Speakers of low status used Lakoff’s “female” features e.g. speaking in italics (“so” and “very”)
  • Renamed this language powerless language
32
Q

Jennifer Coates (Women)

A
  • Female language is cooperative in single sex conversations (Tag questions make women’s talk more cooperative and supportive)
  • Women use features of epistemic modality “to mitigate the force of an utterance in order to respect the addressees’ face needs”
  • Women use questions to involve others
  • Women use more back channelling
  • Female conversations relate more to sensitive topics
  • Women topic shifts are related
33
Q

Jennifer Coates (Men)

A
  • Men jump from one topic to a random other
  • Men hold the floor for a long time taking it in turns to “be the expert”
  • Scarcity of overlapping in male talk
  • “Exchanges of insults are a common part of male sub-culture”
34
Q

Muriel Shultz (1975)

A
  • Not an accident that there are more negative words for women - it represents the patriarchal order and is rule governed
  • Lexical asymmetry - words are unequal in their associations and connotations
35
Q

Jones (1980)

A

Categorises gossip into 4 parts:
- House talk (domestic tasks)
- Chatting
- Scandal (judging others)
- Bitching (bemoaning subordination)

36
Q

Woods (1989)

A
  • In three asymmetrical conversations between business colleagues, the male speakers controlled the floor more regardless of their occupational status
  • Women used more supportive interactional strategies even to subordinates
37
Q

Janet Holmes (1995) (Difference approach)

A
  • Women are more polite than men (where “polite” means showing consideration to others)
  • Women apologise more, whilst men do to save face

Argues against Lakoff’s thesis stating that :
- Hedging and fillers do not necessarily demonstrate indecisiveness and powerlessness
- Tag questions, rather than expressing uncertainty, may be used to keep a conversation going or to be polite and include others in discourse
- Argues that tag questions can be used to express uncertainty, facilitation, softening and confrontation

38
Q

Julie Blake (2006)

A
  • Women swear twice as much in single-sex conversations (8%)
  • Men have more romantic and exotic terms for colours whereas women use domestic descriptions
  • In domestic arguments, women were responsible for 66% of interruptions
  • Young people used marked occupational terms as part of feminist backlash
  • Middle aged people use the most unmarked terms
  • Older people use marked terms
39
Q

Julia Stanley

A
  • 220 words for sexually promiscuous women but only 20 for men
  • Words for men are more positive
  • Language embodies sexual inequality
  • Marked and unmarked terms (“drivers” and “women drivers”) - suggests that male roles are more important because the standard unmarked term refers to them - Stanley refers to this as women having a negative semantic space
  • Addition of a bound morpheme such as “ess” or the qualifier “lady”
40
Q

Anne Bodine (1975)

A
  • There is a bias in the English language in favour of males e.g. Mankind
  • Bodine refers to this as androcentric language
41
Q

Paul Baker

A
  • Terms for women are less positive than those for men
  • Explores two dictionary equivalents “bachelor” and “spinster” and reports his findings on the words that collocate with these in his research
  • The title of his chapter refers to “eligible bachelors” and “frustrated spinsters”
42
Q

Kira Hall

A
  • Some of the most successful sex-chat workers were a different sex and ethnicity to the identities they performed
43
Q

Ferdinand de Saussure

A
  • Early 20th century
  • Semiology (the study of signs)
  • Nouns “man” and “woman” act as the signifiers (the things that carry or produce meaning) and the signified (the meaning itself or the mental concept) are our mental concepts of what and man and woman are
44
Q

Barthes

A
  • Expanded upon Saussure’s views
  • Meanings are not a natural result of what we see but are often culturally specific
  • He divided his signs into their denotations and their connotations i.e. the cultural meanings that we give to them
45
Q

Anita Hultgren

A
  • 2008 study of British and Danish call centres
  • Stereotypical female ‘’script” was the model expected of workers
  • Cameron sees this kind of company-imposed style as requiring workers to subjugate themselves to caller and adopt a submissive position which opens them to abuse
46
Q

Thorne and Henley (1975)

A
  • Studied interruptions between men and women who knew each other well
  • Men interrupted women more than the other way round
  • One man accounted for most of the interruptions but this was regarded as a universal trait
47
Q

Hoey (2005)

A
  • Uses the expression lexical priming to describe the way in which words and phrases come with a kind of under coat layer, built from habitual usage in the same contexts
  • We can associate the ideas about masculine and feminine qualities with particular words e.g. nurturing (women) and control (men)
48
Q

Charles de Rochefort (1665)

A
  • Studies language of Caribs and Arawaks
  • Some features of language were used exclusively by men and some just by women
  • Language was clearly linked to identity
49
Q

Jane Pilkington

A
  • Women in same sex conversations were collaborative and used positive politeness strategies
  • Men in same sex conversations were a lot less collaborative and less supportive than women
50
Q

Sunderland (2004)

A
  • Discourses can be given specific names e.g. equal opportunities or political correctness could exist in relation to gender
  • Discourses can exist alongside other ones becoming “competing, dominant, co-existing or alternative”
  • An organisation might issue guidelines to its staff about acceptable pronouns to use in communication with its customers in order not to exclude people on the basis of their gender

Functions of discourse:
- Resistant (challenges accepted views)
- Subversive (undermines accepted views)
- Conservative (traditional and unchallenging attitudes)
- Progressive (forward thinking)

English Language Paper 2 (12 decks)

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