Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Obstetrics and Gynaecology > Obstetrics and Gynaecology 3 > Flashcards

Obstetrics and Gynaecology 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the types of endometrial CA?

A

Type 1: oestrogen sensitive the majority associated with obesity though usually a less aggressive CA. Atypia are a precursor

Type 2 High grade, clear cell, serious or carcinosarcoma which are more aggressive and not oestrogen sensitive and not associated with obesity.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is the average age of endometrial CA?

A

60

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What are the risk factors for endometrial CA?

What are some protective factors?

A

Endogenous oestrogen excess

  • PCOS if prolonged amenorrhoea leads to unopposed E2 action
  • Obesity
  • Nulliparity
  • Early Menarche
  • Late menopause

Exogenous oestrogens

  • unopposed E2 therapy
  • tamoxifen (an agonist in the post menopausal uterus - risk especially if used for 5 years)

Diabetes
Lynch type II syndrome (Hereditary Non-Polyposis Colonic Cancer HNPCC - associated with colon, ovarian and endometrial cancer)

Pregnancy and the COCP are protective

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is the mechanism for E2 causing endometrial CA?

A

Unopposed E2 can cause hyperplasia of the endometrium further stimulation causes abnormalities of the cellular and glandular architecture causing atypia.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Signs and symptoms of endometrial CA?

A

Postmenopausal bleeding, (10% CA risk)
Premenopausal irregular or intermenstrual bleeding or occasionally recent onset menorrhagia

atrophic vaginitis may coexist.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What is the grading and staging of Endometrial CA?

A 
Staging 
1 - confined to the uterus
2 - uterus + cervix
3 - within the pelvis
4 - metastasis (liver)

Grading G1-G3
G1 well differentiated
G3 not well differentiated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What stage do most of people with endometrial CA have?

What is the management?

Whats the recurrence like?

A

Stage 1

Surgical - Bilateral salpingo-oopherectomy - BSO
Lymphadenectomy is not useful in early disease
High risk patients may require adjuvant therapy
External Radiotherapy
Vaginal Vault Radiotherapy

Recurrence is most common at the vaginal vault - normally in the first three years

Worst prognosis is for those with advancing age, advanced stage and grade with adenosquamous histology.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What is a leiomyoscaroma?

A

A malignant fibroid which presents with rapid, painful uterine fibroid enlargement.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

At what endometrial thickness would there be a problem in a post menopausal woman?

A

> 4 mm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What is the gold standard method of assessment in a woman with Post Menopausal Bleeding?

A

Hysterscopy and directed biopsy.

Though TV USS and triage based on endometrial thickness allows a proportion of women to be discharged without further investigation.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

If a patient with post menopausal bleeding has a biospy and it comes back with endometrial CA positive, what do they need?

A

Referral to the gynaeoncology MDT.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are some possible causes of Post Menopausal Bleeding?

A

Exogenous oestrogens (HRT)

Atrophic Endometritis and Vaginitis

Cervicitis

Endometrial Carcinoma

Endometrial or Cervical Polyps

Endometrial hyperplasia with atypia (20%)

Ring pessary

Ovarian oestrogen secreting tumour

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What is the menopause?

A

Amenorrhoea for >12 months and not on contraception

Or symptoms in those without a uterus

Average age in the UK is 51

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of the menopause?

A
  • Amenorrhoea
  • Vasomotor (hot flushes, usually affecting the upper body 8-15 x per day and sweats; especially at night) - resolving after 3 - 5 years.
  • Urogenital [genitourinary syndrome of menopause] (Vagina, urethra and bladder trigone are oestrogen dependent and gradually atrophy. Atrophy of the vagina may cause severe superficial dyspareunia and bleeding. Many couples avoid sex because of this. The lack of glycogen causes a rise in vaginal pH from 4.0 to 7.0 increasing risk of infection.
    Reduced elasticity of the bladder produces the frequency, urgency, nocturia . incontinence and recurrent infection.
  • Osteoporosis (reduced bone mineral density and bone quality- increased risk of vertebral fractures, neck of femur and distal forearm (colles) - time taken to reach the threshold depends on peak bone mass and rate of bone loss. Unregulated osteoclastic activity (osteoblasts are stimulated by oestrogens).
    1 in 3 over 50 have 1 or more fractures. A T score is the number of standard deviations away from the normal young mean (+1/-1) osteopenia is -1 to -2.5 osteoporosis is -2.5
  • Psychological: irritability, confusion, lethargy, memory loss, loss of libido, depression.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What is normal vaginal discharge?

What is abnormal discharge?

What are the infections commonly associated with vaginal discharge?

A

Normal discharge:
- mucoid, characteristically associated with ovulation, to opague.
- It increases around ovulation, during pregnancy and in women taking the combined oral contraceptive.
Exposure of columnar epithelium in cervical eversion and ectropion may cause discharge.

Abnormal discharge is associated with symptoms, which include:

  • malodour
  • itch
  • superficial dyspareunia
  • vulval problems

The common infections:

  • Bacterial Vaginosis (Gardnerella Vaginalis)
  • Trichomoniasis (STI)
  • Candidiasis

Other causes:

  • cervicitis
  • aerobic vaginitis
  • atrophic vaginitis
  • mucoid cervical ectopy
  • foreign body
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Where is the normal ovary?

What is it’s associated anatomy?

A

in the ovarian fossa on the lateral pelvic wall

overlying the ureter

attached to the broad ligament by the mesovarium

attached to the pelvic side wall by the infundibulopelvic ligament

attached to the uterus by the ovarian ligament

Blood supply is by the ovarian artery but there is anastomosis with branches of the uterine artery in the broad ligament

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

When does the fetoplacenta take over?

A

week 7 to 9

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What are ovarian cysts?

What are there classifcations?

A

a fluid containing structure more than 30 mm in diameter.

May be caused by physiological, infectious, benign, malignant or metastatic

Physiological: development due to exaggerated response to normal physiology includin:

  • follicular
  • endometriotic
  • corpus luteum
  • theca lutein cysts

Infectious: abscess

Benign neoplastic: excessive growth of normal ovarian tissue without dysplasia:

  • serous cystadenoma
  • mucinous cystadenoma
  • adenofibroma
  • fibroma
  • thecoma
  • mature cystic teratoma [dermoid]
  • Brenner’s tumour

Malignant neoplastic:

  • serous cystadenocarinoma
  • mucinous cystadenocarinoma
  • endometroid adenocarinoma
  • immature teratoma

Metastatic:

  • ovarian
  • endometrial
  • colonic
  • gastric
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What are some complications of ovarian cystic disease

A

rupture, torsion and haemorrhage into a a cyst.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What are the risk factors for ovarian cysts?

A
  • Pre-menopausal
  • early menarche
  • pregnancy
  • pcos
  • tamoxifen
  • endometriosis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What is the management for ovarian cysts?

A

Depends on the cyst

Expectant with serial ultrasound follow up

Laparoscopic investigation +/- histopathology

22
Q

Define urinary incontinence

A

Involuntary urinary leakage which can be divided broadly into

  • stress incontinence
  • urge incontinence
23
Q

What is day time frequency?

A

The number of times a women voids during the day - normal is between 4 and 7 times. Increased frequency is when the women identifies it as too much.

24
Q

What is nocturia?

A

Waking at night one or more times to void. Up to the age of 70 years, more than a single void is considered normal.

25
Q

What is nocturnal enuresis?

A

Urinary incontinence during sleep

26
Q

What is urgency?

A

the compelling desire to pass urine, which is frequently secondary to detrusor overactivity, although inflammatory bladder conditions such as interstitial cystitis (Painful bladder syndrome) may also present with this.

27
Q

What are common investigations for uro-gynae?

A 
URINE DIPSTICK: 
Testing for 
- blood (carcinoma or calculi)
- glucose (diabetes)
- protein (nephrotic?)
- leucocytes (Infection)
- nitrites (infection - send for microscopy and sensitivity)

URINARY DIARY:
Record keep for a week with the time, volume of fluid intake and micturition - information about drinking habits, frequency and bladder capacity

URODYNAMIC STUDIES, CYSTOMETRY:
measures the vesical pressure while the bladder is filled and provoked with coughing.
A pressure transducer is also placed in the rectum or vagina to measure abdominal pressure. (subtracting to two gets the true detrusor pressure) - can idenitify urodynamic stress incontinence USI (coughing without detrusor activity) or detrusor overactivity where involuntary destrusor contraction occurs.

ULTRASONOGRAPHY
Excludes incomplete bladder emptying, congenital abnormalities, calculi and tumours, cortical scaring of the kidneys.

ABDOMINAL X-RAY -KUB

CT UROGRAM W/ CONTRAST

METHYLENE DYE TEST: blue dye into the bladder and leakage checked

CYSTOSCOPY
visual inspection but little indication of bladder performance

28
Q

What is the puerperium?

A

the Pu-er-perium is the period of 6 weeks after birth.

29
Q

What is Stress Urinary Incontinence?

A

Stress Urinary Incontinence is the involuntary leakage of urine during exercise or movements such as coughing, sneezing and laughing.

It is caused by weak or damaged muscles and connective tissues in the pelvic floor, compromising urethral support, or by weakness of the urethral sphincter itself.

30
Q

What is the aetiology of stress urinary incontinence?

A 
Increasing parity
vaginal delivery
episiotomy
Forceps
\:due to weakening and stretching of the muscles and connective tissue during delivery, as well as damage to the pudendal and pelvic nerves.

Obesity
:due to increased pressure on pelvic tissues over time causing stretch and weakening.

Postmenopausal

strenuous activity, e.g. weightlifting increases stress on the pelvic support structures.

in the normal woman, when abdominal pressure rises there is an equal compression on the bladder neck. But with weak support it may slip below the pelvic floor and it will not be compressed. If the rest of the urethra and pelvic floor cannot compensate the bladder pressure will exceed the urethral pressure and cause incontinence.

31
Q

What examination would be formed on a lady with urinary incontinence?

A

Palpation of the bladder to check for retention

Check for anterior or posterior prolapse and urinary continence

digital examination to confirm pelvic floor muscle contraction

32
Q

What is the management for stress urinary continence?

A

Management of lifestyle factors

  • Obesity - lose weight
  • Cough - prevent smoking to reduce coughing
  • reduce excessive fluid intake

1) Trial of pelvic floor muscle training for at least 3 months as a first line treatment for stress or mixed UI (NICE)
It should include at least 8 contractions performed 3 times per day

2) In women who prefer pharmacological to surgical treatment or aren’t suitable for surgical treatment Duloxetine is an option (SNRI) that enhances urethral striated sphincter activity. Nausea occurs in up to 1/4 and dyspepsia, dry mouth, dizziness, insomnia or drowsiness can limit its use.

3) surgical management:
- synthetic mid-urethral tape (tension-free vaginal tape TVT and transobtutrator tape TOT) 90% success.
A polypropylene sling is inserted.

  • open colposuspension
  • autologous rectus fascial sling

4) intramural bulking agents/injectable periurethral bulking agents - lower success but okay if surgery has failed.

33
Q

What is urge urinary incontinence

What condition is it associated with?

A

The involuntary leakage of urine accompanied by, or immediately preceded by, a strong desire to pass urine.

Urgency, with or without urge urinary incontinence, usually with frequency and nocturia is also defined as overactive bladder syndrome.(in the absence of infection)

34
Q

what is the cause of over active bladder?

what is the mechanism?

A

1) most commonly idiopathic
2) It can follow pelvic surgery and for incontinence
3) Neurogenic causing involuntary detrusor contractions: multiple sclerosis, spina bifida4
4) increases as you get older

The contracting detrusor is felt as urgency, it may over come urethral pressure: urge incontinence. This can occur spontaneously or with provocation - e.g. cold weather, opening the front door, or hearing running water, or coughing - the latter may cause a misdiagnosis of stress incontinence.

35
Q

What investigations are indicated for urge incontinence

A

1) bladder diary -? late night drinking and high caffeine intake
2) urine dip and culture
3) urodynamics

36
Q

What is the management of overactive bladder/ urge incontinence?

A 
Conservative: 
Behavioural therapy 
- reduce fluid intake
- reduce caffeine intake
- review diuretics, antipsychotics (antimuscarinic side effects)
- lose weight

Bladder retraining for 6/52 minimum

  • education
  • timed voiding with systematic delay in voiding
  • positive reinforcement

Pharmaceutical
- anticholinergics (which suppress the detrusor activity by blocking the muscarinic receptors (Parasympathetic) that mediate contraction - dry mouth, constipation, nausea, dyspepsia, flatulence, blurred vision, dizziness and insomnia, palpitation, arrthymia as a side effects
oxybutynin tolterodine darifenacin

Consider vaginal oestrogens in postmenopausal women

MDT referral before surgery/botulinum

37
Q

What are the different kinds of female genital prolapse?

A

Anterior wall: - Bladder (cystocoele) and/or urethra (urethrocoele)

Apical: Uterus, cervix and upper vagina; vaginal vault if previous hysterectomy

Poster wall:
Rectum (rectocoele) and/or pouch of douglas (eneterocooele (loop of small bowel)

38
Q

What is the aetiology of prolapse?

A

Vaginal delivery and pregnancy: NVD can cause mechanical injuries and denervation of the pelvic floor: which are increased with large infants, prolonged second stage and instrumental delivery.

Congenital factors: abnormal collagen (Ehlers-Danlos)

Menopause

Chronic factors: obesity, chronic cough, constipation, heavy lifting or pelvic mass.

Iatrogenic factors: e.g. hysterectomy.

39
Q

Symptoms of prolapse?

A

Often absence, but a dragging sensation or sensation of a lump is common. Usually worse at the end of the day or when standing.

40
Q

treatment for prolapse?

A

Ring or shelf pessary
changed every 6 - 9 months

Hysteroplexy - attaches the uterus and cervix to the sacrum with mesh
Sacrocolpopexy

41
Q

Why are pregnancy women at risk of urinary tract infections?

What should be done?

A

Dilation of the upper renal tract and urinary stasis due to pressure by the uterus.

Women should be screened for asymptomatic bacteriauria with MSU sample at booking.

42
Q

What are the symptoms of cystitis?

What about pyelonephritis?

A

Cystitis

  • urinary frequency
  • urgency
  • dysuria
  • haematuria
  • proteinuria
  • suprapubic pain

Pyelonephritis

  • fever
  • rigors
  • vomiting
  • loin and abdominal pain
43
Q

What are the investigations for urinary tract infections?

A

Urinalysis - nitrites and leukocytes

MSU - >10x10^4

Bloods: culture, FBC U&E, CRP in pyrexial patient

Renal USS: to exclude hydronephrosis, congenital abnormality and calculi

44
Q

What is miscarriage?

A

The fetus dies or delivers dead before 24 completed weeks of pregnancy

The majority occur before 12 weeks.

45
Q

What are the different types of miscarriage?

A

Threatened miscarriage:
Bleeding but the fetus is still alive, the uterus is the size expected from the dates and the cervical os is closed 1/4 will go on to miscarry.

Inevitable miscarriage: bleeding is usually heavier. Although the fetus may be alive, the cervical os is open. Miscarriage is about to occur.

Incomplete miscarriage:
Some fetal parts have been passed but the os is usually open

Complete miscarriage:
All fetal tissues have been passed. Bleeding has diminished, the uterus is no longer enlarged and the cervical os is closed. USS confirms endometrial thickness <15 mm

Septic miscarriage:
The contents of the uterus are infected, causing endometritis. Vaginal loss is usually offensive, the uterus is tender, but a fever can be absent. If pelvic infection occurs there is abdominal pain and peritonism.

Missed miscarriage:
The fetus has not developed or died in utero, but this is not recognized until bleeding occurs or ultrasound is performed. The uterus is smaller than expected from the dates and the os is closed.

46
Q

What factors do not cause miscarriage?

A

Exercise

Intercourse

Stress

Emotional trauma

47
Q

What is the normal history for miscarriage?

A

Bleeding, unless a missed miscarriage at USS

Pain from uterine contractions can be confused with ectopic pregnancy.

48
Q

What is the effect on hCG of a viable pregnancy?

A

hCG levels should increase by >63% in 48 hours.

49
Q

What is the emergency management for miscarriage?

A

Admission if the bleeding is heavy or ectopic pregnancy is suspected

Resuscitation

Conception products in the cervical os cause pain, bleeding and vasovagal shock and are removed via a speculum using polyp forceps.

Intramuscular ergometrine will reduce bleeding by contracting the uterus, but only if the fetus is non via.

Consider Anti-D in rhesus negative mothers

50
Q

What are the choices of management for non-viable intrauterine pregnancy?

A

Expectant - Medical - Surgical

have a FBC to check Hb

Expectant:
Can be continued as long as the woman is willing and there are no signs of infection. It is successful within 2 - 6 weeks - Rescan in 10-14 days. Though review if no products passed in 2 weeks. (have a pregnancy test after 3 weeks of passage to check complete passage) as success reduces with duration.

Medical:
Vaginal or oral prostaglandin (misoprostol) for missed or incomplete miscarriage. A urine pregnancy test should be repeated 3 weeks after medical management to exclude an ectopic or molar pregnancy
+ pain relief and anitiemetics
+ counselling on length and extent of bleeding, and side effects of pain, diarrhoea and vomiting.

Surgical management:
(prev ERPC) carried out under anaesthetic using manual vacuum aspiration. Evacuation is suitable if the women prefers it, if there is heavy bleeding or signs of infection. + mistoprostol (though avoid in prev C-section, myometcomy or uterine perforation) on the day and peri-operative ABX.

Women need direct access to an emergency gynaecological service for advice/treatment.

Obstetrics and Gynaecology (4 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions