Observations Flashcards
types of observations
Non-participant
Participant
whether non-participant or participant what can observations be as well
covert
overt
non participant observations
the researcher observes the group without taking part
participant observations
the researcher takes part in the life of the group while observing it
overt
the researcher reveals their true identity and purpose to those being studied and asks their permission to observe
covert
the researcher conceals their true identity and purpose, usually posing as a genuine member of the group
who favours it and why
it is favoured by interpretivists as they see it as a way of gaining insight into actors meanings
problems conducting a participant observation
getting in
making contact
acceptance
staying in
over involvement
getting out
getting in
to conduct a study we must first gain entry to the group. Some groups are easier to enter than others.
making contact
Making initial contact with a group may depend on factors such as personal skills, having the right connections or even pure chance. Patrick was able to join a glasgow gang because he looked young and knew one of the members from having taught him
acceptance
Once contact is made the researcher may have to overcome the group’s suspicions and win their trust. However, the researcher’s social characteristics may prove an obstacle if it differs from the groups. Griffin was a white man who in 1959 used medication and a sun lamp to change his skin colour and pass as black, he travelled around the Deep South of the USA and experienced the impact of racism first hand
what does the researcher need to do on entering the group
On entering the group, the researcher may need to adopt a particular role. And it should not disrupt the groups normal behaviour
what role should the researcher adopt once they get in
One that does not disrupt the groups normal patterns
Offer a good vantage point from which to make observations, however, it is not possible to adopt a role that is unobtrusive and a good vantage point
staying in
once accepted the researcher needs to be able to stay in the group and complete the study. This produces a key problem for the researcher - having to be both involved in the group so as to understand it fully and yet at the same time detached from the group so as to remain objective and unbiased
problem with being too detached
If they are too detached they risk not understanding what they observe. If they become too involved they risk over-identifying with the group. They have ceased to be an objective researcher and are simply a member of the group which can be very difficult
over-involvement
One danger of staying in a group is that of becoming over-involved. By over-identifying with the group, the researcher becomes biased. Punch study of Amsterdam Police he over identified with the group he studied
The more time the researcher spends with the group, the less strange its ways come to appear - the observer becomes less observant
getting out
Leaving a group with whom one has become close can be difficult
advantages of overt operations
It avoids the ethical problem of obtaining information by deceit and when studying deviant groups that of being expected to join in their activities
It allows the observer to ask the kind of naive but important questions that only an outsider could ask - validity
The observer can take notes easily
It allows the researcher to use interview methods to check insights derived from observations
major disadvantages of overt observations
A group may refuse the researcher’s permission to observe them or may prevent them from seeing everything. Two Amsterdam police officers that punch studied told him ‘when you were here with us, we only let you see what we wanted you to see’
It risks creating the Hawthorne effect where those who know they are being observed begin to behave differently as a result - undermines validity of the data
issues with covert
The researcher must keep up an act which can be stressful if they are in that role for a long period of time
The researcher may need detailed knowledge of people’s way of life and characteristics before joining that allow them to fit in - there is always a risk of ones cover being blown by a simple mistake, Patrick was almost found out when he bought his suit with cash instead of credit and when he fastened the middle button of his jacket rather than the top one - things the gang would never had done
Cannot ask naive questions
rely on memory and write notes in secret - ditton in his study on theft among bread delivery men had to use toilets as a place to record his observation which led to suspicions.
there is less risk of altering the groups behaviour because they dont know theyre being observed - validity, useful in studying activities that people would rather keep secret - Humphreys study of gay men’s sexual encounter in public toilets pretend to be in the same boat as them
ethical issues with covert observations
It is unethical to deceive people in order to obtain information by pretending to be their friend or in the same boat. Researchers should obtain their informed consent and reveal the purpose of the study and the use of the findings. This cannot be done with covert observations as it risks harming the authenticity of the researcher
Covert observers may have to lie about their reason for leaving the group at the end of their research, others simply abandon the group without explanations like patrick which some may argue that is unethical
They may have to participate in immoral or illegal activities as part of their cover role
what does covert NPO involve
spying on people without their knowledge
ethical issues with overt PO
they may witness activities that they have a moral or legal duty to disclose - this may harm their cover with covert PO and undermine their relationship with the group
structured NPO
favoured by positivists
It is quicker so a larger and more representative sample can be studied and generalisations can be made
The observer remains detached - by avoiding involvement they do not influence the group’s behaviour and they do not over identify with the group and lose objectivity
Like the standardised questions used in q’s they produce
pre coded observational categories allow the sociologist to produce quantitative data, identify and measure behaviour patterns and establish cause and effect relationships
practical issues in PO
insight
access
flexibility
insight
It gives us insight into other peoples lives by allowing us to gain verstehen through first hand experience. By living as a member of a group in their natural environment we can develop a rapport with its members and gain insight into their way of life, meanings, values and problems. This produces large amounts of detailed qualitative data that give us a feel for what it is like to be a member of the group
access
PO may be the only suitable method for accessing and studying certain groups-
Groups that engage in deviant activities may be suspicious of outsiders who come asking questions but more willing to cooperate with someone who seeks to share their way of life
Where members of a group are unaware of the unconscious stereotypes behind their actions, observations may be the only means of uncovering them since it would be pointless asking questions about them
flexibility
By comparison with survey methods, PO is very flexible. With survey methods, we have to begin with a fixed hypothesis and pre-set questions which may raise a problem of questions we think are important may not be important to the subjects. With PO, this is not a problem. We can enter the research with an open mind and formulate new hypotheses and research questions as and when we encounter new situations - this does not restrict the data the researcher gets - Whyte argued that he learnt answers to q’s that he would not have gotten if he used interviews
practical limitations of PO
It is very time-consuming - produces large amounts of data which can be hard to analyse and categorise - whytes study took him 4 years
The researcher needs to be trained so they can recognise the aspects of a situation that are significant and worth investigating
It requires observational skills that not everyone possesses
Powerful groups may be able to prevent sociologists participating in them
personal characteristics such as age, gender or ethnicity may restrict what kind of group can be studied - Downes and Rock
practical issues with overt
Researcher can behave normally and does not have to put on an act
The group may refuse to let an outsider join them or may prevent them from witnessing certain activities
can take notes easily and does not have to rely on memory
can opt out of any dangerous or illegal activities
it risks creating the hawthorne effect
theoretical issues
Validity through involvement
flexibility and grounded theory
representativeness
reliability
bias and lack of objectivity
lack of validity
Hawthorne effect
validity through involvement
it requires the sociologists to have higher levels of involvement with the group being studied than other methods. By exp the life of the group at first-hand, the sociologist is able to get close to people’s lived reality and gain a deep subjective understanding of their meanings. While others may lie when answering questions about themselves in interviews direct observation gives us a truer picture of how they really live. By spending lengthy periods of time with a group, we are able to see actors’ meanings as they develop - this gives us a more valid picture than the snapshots taken at a single moment in time by interviews or questionnaires.
representativeness
groups studied are usually very small, and the sample is often selected haphazardly. This means that the group studied may be unrepresentative of the wider population. Downes and Rock note that although PO may provide valid insights into the particular group being studied it is doubtful how far these internally valid insights are externally valid - that is true to the wider population
reliability
It is not a standardised measuring instrument, it heavily depends on the personal skills and characteristics of the lone researcher, whyte argued that his method was unique to him. This means it is impossible for any other investigator to check the original study by replicating it so we cannot be sure if its findings are true. It also produces qualitative data which makes comparisons difficult
bias and objectivity
Positivists argue that the researcher’s close involvement with the group results in a lack of objectivity.
1. The risk of becoming too involved makes it difficult to remain objective and the sociologists may end up presenting a one-sided or biased view of the group
2. Sometimes loyalty to the group leads the sociologist to conceal sensitive information. This denies those who read the published study a full and objective account of the research
3. The findings of such studies are merely the biased impressions of the observer. Rather than being the actor’s view of their world, it is merely the observer’s view - the observer selects only those facts they think are worth recording and those likely to fit with their own values and prejudices - limits its validity
where does the Hawthorne effect take place
In overt observations but even in covert studies, the presence of an extra member as a researcher may change the group’s behaviour. interpretivists argue that over time the group gets used to the observer’s presence and behaves normally
lack of a concept of structure
It focuses on the micro level of actors’ meanings which tends to ignore the wider structural forces that shape our behaviour
