Observations Flashcards
Observations
Use of the observational method A01
-Must be in some way selective, attending to what is perceived as most useful to us
-Systematic observation entails careful planning of what we want to observe
-To be ‘public’ it must be recorded in some way for the information to be analysed and interpreted
-It can generative both quantitative and qualitative data using
Tally counts=how many times a certain behaviour/s occurred
Observer narratives= observer takes notes during session and then go back later to try and collect chats and discern behaviour patterns from these
Audio/video recoding= depends on type of behaviour being observed, researchers might also decide to make an actual audio/video recording of each session
Observations
Sampling techniques in observations A01
-Sometimes observations are made continuously where the observer records everything that happens in detail Eg with video camera
-Sometimes researchers use a sampling technique as it may be difficult to record everything
Event sampling=
-Procedure where the observer records each event that meets a predetermined definition eg ticking a box everything someone scratches their head
+Less chance of behaviour of interest being missed compared to time sampling
-If too many observations happen at once it may be difficult to record everything
-May be challenging to determine/describe independence of events; where one event ends and another begins
-Not good at coding dyadic interactions: parent-child, romantic partner relations where there’s a fair amount of interdependence between participants
Time sampling=
-Researcher decides on time interval (5 seconds) and then records what behaviour is happening at that time
+efficient and inexpensive
+appropriate for frequently occurring and/or discrete behaviours
-less useful for infrequently occurring behaviours
-behaviour may be missed if time samples limited
-may not be appropriate in situations where there is a high concentration of individuals in a single setting, and many potential interruptions arising from nature of activity
Observations
Structured observation A01
-May occur in a natural or lab setting
-often observer intervenes in order to cause an event to occur/ ‘set up’ situation so events can be more easily recorded than they would be without intervention
-One benefit to structured observation is it allows research’s to record behaviour that may be difficult to observe using naturalistic observation, but that are more natural than the artificial conditions imposed in a lab experiment
-Focus determined before hand, follows principles and assumptions of quantitative research
-Different levels of ‘structure’ observation can take;
Highly structured= researcher decided in precise and mutually exclusive way, observation categories in advance
Semi structured= Researcher starts with an agenda of what will be observed and how; collecting data is less systematic/predetermined, coding scheme is decided in advance
- Collection can be conducted on facts, events or behaviours
-Can look at verbal or nonverbal behaviour
Observations
Naturalistic observations A01
- Involves observing subjects in their natural environment
- often utilised in situations where conducting lab research is unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would un-ideally affect subjects behaviour
- Differs from structured observation in that it involves looking at a behaviour as it occurs in its natural setting with no attempts at invention on the part of the researcher
Observations
Covert observation A01
-Particular type of participant observation; identity of the researcher, the nature of the research project and the fact the participants are being observed is concealed from those being studied
-Conducted in three contexts;
public and open wide settings- where everyone has right to be
Eg supermarket, park
Closed settings- where researcher is already a member
Eg nurse in a hospital
Closed settings- where researcher gains access by acting as a member
Eg patient in psychiatric hospital
Observations
Overt observations A01
-Researcher being open about their intentions in the field and ensuring all members of the social group are aware of what is happening
-Those being observed are aware of the presence of the observer
Eg an inspector coming into a classroom to observe pupils
Observations
Participants observation A01
-The observer participates in ongoing activities and records observations
-Extends beyond naturalistic observations because the observer is a ‘player’ in the action
-Often the researcher actually takes on the role of being studies
Eg working in a mental hospital
-In other types of participant observation they may act as more of a bystander
Observations
Structured- strengths A03
Validity in structured observations can be considered high as it tends to generate quantitative data- numbers often in the form of a tally chart. This allows objective analysis to be done easily, meaning subjectivity in analysis would be low and so the conclusions are drawn more accurately and are valid.
Following a structured format, the observation categories can be predetermined and follow a set agenda on what will be observed and how. This systematic approach allows for replication to be achieved easier, improving the reliability of the approach as we can the results for consistency.
Observations
Structured- Weakness A03
A highly structured observation may take place in a lab setting, decreasing ecological validity of the findings as the data would only be representative of the participants behaviour in an artificial environment. Therefore, the accuracy of the results can be questioned as we’re uncertain of how well the results represents the participants in their natural environment.
As the researchers structure their observation based on the aim of their study, the method can be criticised of being vulnerable to subjectivity. A researcher may only see what they wish to see not necessarily recording what actually happens, therefore the potential for researcher bias can reduce validity of the results.
Observations
Non participant observations A01
- The observer does not participate directly in the activities being observed
- Observer adopts a more distant and separate role
- At its most extreme a non participant observer can have no contact with the researched, but watches and records events through one way mirrors or cameras
- Can be overt or covert
Observations
Naturalistic- Strengths A03
The natural environment provides high ecological validity as participants are more likely to produce natural behaviour compared to the artificial situation of a lab. Therefore suggesting the conclusions drawn will be accurate.
As a method it is more useful because it allows an insight into behaviour what cannot be manipulated in a lab due to ethical concerns, for instance studying inmates in a prison to investigate the impact of imprisonment on human behaviour allows us to study this ethically. Demonstrating this method to be more useful in exploring more areas of human behaviour in an ethical way.
Observations
Naturalistic- Weaknesses A03
However there are practical issues reducing the use of naturalistic observations as the method can prove to be very time consuming; sometimes requiring dozens of observation sessions lasting large parts of the day to gain data on the behaviour of interest. Therefore, the cost of conducting a naturalistic observation may outweigh the benefit, showing the method lacks usefulness.
Validity can be questioned as the behaviour observed is perceived subjectively; different observers may notice different things and interpret them in different ways. This suggests that the findings may not be accurate or consistent, reducing the validity of the method.
