Observational techniques and design Self-report techniques and design Correlational analysis Flashcards
1
Q
What is assocation
A
association is the illustrates the strength and direction of an association between two co-variables
2
Q
what is a scattergram
A
correlations are plotted on a scattergram. one co variable is on the x axis the other on the y axis.
3
Q
what are the types of correlation
A
positive correlation
negative correlation
zero correlation
4
Q
what is positive correlation
A
co variables rise or fall together
5
Q
what is negative correlation
A
one co variable rises and the other fall
6
Q
what is zero correlation
A
no relationship between the two variables
7
Q
/ - what type of correlation
A
positive
8
Q
- what type of correlation
A
negative
9
Q
-/-/ what type of correlation
A
zero
10
Q
What are the differences between correlations and experiments?
A
- in an experiment the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV. In a correlation there is no manipulation of variables and so cause and effect cannot be demonstrated like in experiments.
- in a correlation the influence of the EVs is not controlled, so it may be a third untested variable causing the relationship between co variables- called an intervening variable
11
Q
What are the positives of correlation
A
- useful starting point for research: by assessing the strength and direction of a relationship, correlations provide a precise measure of how two variables are relates, if variables are strongly related it may suggest hypotheses for future research
- relatively economical: unlike a lab study, there is no need for a controlled environment and no manipulation of variables is required, correlations are less time-consuming than experiments
12
Q
negatives of correlations
A
- no cause and effect: correlations are often presented as causal, there may be intervening variables that explain the relationship
- method used to measure variables may be flawed, for example the method used to work out an aggression score might be low in reliability, this would reduce the validity of the correlational study.
13
Q
What is a correlation
A
the analysis of the relationship betweej co variables
14
Q
what is an observational technique
A
a way of seeing or listening to what people do without having to ask them. observations are often used within an experiment as a way of assessing the DV.
15
Q
positives of an observation
A
can capture unexpected behaviour: people often act differently from how they day they will in self-report methods, observations are useful as they five insight into spontaneous behaviour
16
Q
negatives of observations
A
risk of observer bias: researcher’s interpretation of the situation may be affected by expectations, bias may be reduced by using more then one observer.
17
Q
What are the types of observational techniques
A
naturalistic controlled covert overt participant non-participant
18
Q
What is a naturalistic observation
A
takes place where the target behaviour would normally occure
19
Q
What is a controlled observation
A
some control/manipulation of variables including control of EVs
20
Q
What is a covert observation
A
participants are unaware they are being studied
21
Q
What is a overt observation
A
participants are aware of being studied
22
Q
What is a participant observation
A
when the researcher becomes part of the group they are studying
23
Q
What is a non-participant observation
A
when the researcher remains separate from the group they are studying
24
Q
Advantages of a naturalistic observation
A
high external validity- in a natural context, behaviour is likely to be more spontaneous, more generalisable to everyday life
25
Advantages of a controlled observation
can be replicated - more easily repeated due to standardised procedures, findings can be checked to see if they occur again
26
Advantages of a covert observation
demand characteristics reduced- participants do not know they are being watched so their behaviour will be more natural, this increases the validity of their findings
27
Advantages of a overt observation
more ethically acceptable- participants have given their consent to be studied, they have the right to withdraw if they wish
28
Advantages of a participant observation
can lead to greater insight- researcher experiences the situation as the participants do, this enhances the validity of the findings
29
Advantages of a non-participant observation
more objective- researcher maintains an objective distance so less chance of bias
30
Disadvantages of a naturalistic observation
low control- there may be uncontrolled EVs, makes it more difficult to detect patterns
31
Disadvantages of a controlled observation
may have low external validity- behaviour may be contrived as a result of the setting, findings cannot be applied to everyday experience
32
Disadvantages of a covert observation
ethically questionable- people may not want behaviour recorded even in public, participants right to privacy may be affected
33
Disadvantages of a overt observation
demand characteristics- knowledge of being studied influences behaviour, reduces the validity of the findings
34
Disadvantages of a participant observation
possible loss of objectivity-the researcher may identify too strongly with those they are studying, going native, this threatens the objectivity and validity of the findings
35
Disadvantages of a non-participant observation
loss of insight- researcher may be too far removed from those they are studying, may reduce the validity of the findings
36
What is an unstructured observation
everything is recorded which can be quite difficult if a lot is going on
37
what is a structured observation
includes behavioural categories and sampling methods
38
what are the types of observational design
behavioural categories
time sampling
event sampling
39
what are behavioural categories
the target behaviour to be observed should be broken up into a set of observable categories. this is similar to the idea of operationalisation
40
advantages of behavioural categories
none
41
disadvantages of behavioural categories
difficult to make clear and unambiguous - categories should be self-evident and not overlap, not always possible to achieve. smiling and grinning would be poor categories
dustbin categories - all forms of behaviour should be in the list and not one dustbin, dumped behaviours go unrecorded
42
what is time sampling
observations are made at regular intervals eg once every 15 seconds
43
advantages of time sampling
reduces the number of observations-rather than recording everything that is seen data is recorded at certain intervals, the observation is more structured and systematic.
44
disadvantages of time sampling
may be unrepresentative-the researcher may miss important details outside of time scale, may not reflect the whole behaviour
45
what is event sampling
a target behaviour/event is recorded every time it occurs
46
advantages of event sampling
may record infrequent behaviour-the researcher will still pick up behaviours that do not occur at regular intervals, such behaviours could easily be missed using time sampling
47
disadvantages of time sampling
complex behaviour oversimplified, if the event is too complex, important details may go unrecorded, this may affect the validity of the findings.
48
What are questionnaires
are made up of a pre-set list of written questions to which a participant responds
49
what are the types of self report techniques
interviews and questionnaires
50
what is the name given to the rating scale
Likert scale
51
does interview bias take place on questionnaires of interviews
interviews
52
advantages of questionnaires
can be distributed to lots of people- can gather large amounts of data quickly and the researcher need not be present when completed, reduces the effort involved and makes questionnaires cost effective
respondents may be willing to open up - respondents may share more personal information than in an interview as they are less self conscious, there may be less chance of social desirability bias compared to an interview
53
disadvantages of questionnaires
responses may not always be truthful-respondents tend to present themselves in a positive light, thus social desirability bias is still possible
response bias- respondents may favour a particular kind of response, eg they always agree, this means that all respondents tend to reply in a similar way
54
what is an interview
face to face interaction between interviewer and interviewee.
55
types of interview
structures
| unstructured
56
advantages of structured interviews
easy to replicate - straightforward to replicate because of standardised format- the format also reduces differences between interviewers
57
what is a structured interview
list of pre-determined questions asked in a fixed order
58
disadvantages of a structured interview
interviewers cannot elaborate- interviewers cannot deviate from the topic or elaborate their points, this may be a source of frustration for some
59
what is an unstructured interview
there are no set questions. there is a general topic to be discussed but the interaction is free-flowing and the interviewee is encouraged to elaborate.
60
advantages of unstructured interviews
there is greater flexibility- unlike a structured interview, points can be followed up as they arise, more likely to gain insight into interviewee's worldview
61
disadvantages of unstructured interviews
difficult to replicate-such interviews lack structure and are not standardised, greater risk of interviewer bias.
62
writing good questionnaires
- avoid jargon: do you agree that... do you disagree that....
- avoid double-barrelled questions. do you agree that... and that....
- avoid leading questions. do you agree...is bad
63
types of questionnaire designs
open and closed questions
64
what is an open question
respondents provide their own answers expressed in words. provides qualitative. why questions etc
65
advantages of open questions
responses are not restricted-answers more likely to provide detailed, unpredicted information, likely to have more validity than statistics.
66
disadvantages of open questions
difficult to analyse- wider variety of answers than produced by closed questions, may be forced to reduce data to statistics
67
what are closed questions
respondent has limited choices. produces quantitative date. yes or no etc
68
advantages of closed questions
easier to analyse-can produce graphs and charts for comparison, makes it easier to draw a conclusion
69
disadvantages of closed questions
respondents are restricted-forced into an answer that may not be representative of true feelings, may reduce the validity of the findings
70
what are the types of interview designs
interview schedule
quiet room
rapport
ethics
71
what is the interview design interview schedule
a standardised list of questions that the interviewer needs to cover, can reduce interviewer bias
72
what is the interview design quiet room
will increase the likelihood that the interviewee will open up
73
what is the interview design rapport
begin with neutral questions to make participants feel relaxed
74
what is the interview design ethics
remind interviewees that answers will be treated in confidence
