Observational methods Flashcards
Distinguish between observation as a technique and as a design
TECHNIQUE - making observations to measure the DV, can be used as a method in an experimental design
DESIGN - emphasis on observation as the main procedure for data gathering, non-experimental in which records made of relatively unconstrained behaviour as it occurs
What are key advantages of observational designs?
Produces immediate data on real behaviour not self-reports that can be distorted
Can gather data on behaviour not amenable to experimentation
Conducted in field settings we can gather data on completely genuine behaviour, unconstrained
What are key disadvantages of observational designs?
behaviour can change when observed (reactivity)
Time-consuming (esp participant observation)
May not be possible to identify cause and effect
What is meant by participant observation?
Observer joins the group to record behaviour, useful when group being studied is small or remote
Ethically controversial, there are potential objectivity issues and also the possibility that results may be altered by the presence of the experimenter (who may or may not tell subjects details of the experiment/deceive them to an extent)
The meaning of behaviour becomes more accessible
Degrees of participation - full participant (true role fully hidden), participant as observer (observational role not seen as main reason for presence), observer as participant (accepted into a group as a researcher), or full observer (i.e. non-participant)
What is non-participant observation?
Observer watches from a distance and ideally has no effect on behaviour being observed
What are 2 key strengths of participant observation?
Flexibility - observer participation, topics to be covered are determined as you go along
Relationship with observed group - give researcher time to dissipate the suspiciousness that many groups have of researchers, and to establish trust
What are some difficulties with participant observations?
The presence of a researcher, no matter what precautions are taken, will trigger interactions that otherwise wouldn’t have happened, thus changing group behaviour to some degree
Becoming socially and emotionally involved in a group threatens objectivity of reporting
Note-taking is not done in real-time so vulnerable to memory loss/distortion
What are the key features of role-play and simulation methods?
Participants act out various social roles in dramatic situations
Can take a non-active role e.g. watch a role-play and report feelings and reactions etc (simulation essentially serves as material for a question-asking method), but most commonly they take an active role, often taking on a specific character role and interacting with someone
What are some key concerns with the role-play method?
Behaviour may be non-spontaneous and passive, people may act in more socially desirable ways outside of their normal context, and what people say they would do vs what they actually do can often be very different
What are some advantages and disadvantages of the diary method?
Observed persons are acting naturally - source of rich, genuine and intimate data
Participants can also keep diaries which researchers can then use for content analysis
Different biographers have their own particular perspective and tend to concentrate on different aspects of behaviour; also tend not to standardise intervals between recordings
What are the main features of a structured/systematic approach to observation?
Define behaviour categories to be recorded prior to starting
Sample behaviour in a consistent manner
Train observers in the use of a coding system and to a good level of agreement beforehand (establish inter-rater reliability)
What is meant by event coding?
Driven by occurrence/changes of events
Record number of times something happens
Sequential analysis i.e. recording the sequence in which activities occur (but doesn’t tell us how long they occurred for)
Making categories mutually exclusive and exhaustive can help - when one begins the previous must have ended, gives more of an idea of timings
What is meant by interval coding?
Coding what happens over time intervals - can record ALL activities occurring or record what happened MOSTLY during a certain period
What is time-sampling?
Like interval coding but when time intervals are not consecutive
What is meant by controlled observation?
Lab studies in which the researcher controls the environment
Problems with ecological validity
