OBHR Final Flashcards
What is a negotiation?
decision-making situations in which two or more interdependent parties attempt to reach agreement
Negotiations occur for what reasons?
- To agree on how to share or divide a limited resource
- To create something new that neither party could attain on his or her own
- To resolve a problem or dispute between the parties
What is disruptive negotiation?
- Goals of one party are in fundamental, direct conflict to another party
- One person’s gain is the other’s loss
What are the 4 thing required for a negotiation
- Target point (aspiration point)
- Resistance point (walk away)
- Asking price, initial offer
- BATNA – This will influence
the other three points
What is the “Target” point
Your goal in the negotiation
* Should be realistic, based on available information
* Subjective
What is the Resistance point
- The point at which you are indifferent to whether you achieve a negotiated agreement or walk away
- Beyond the resistance point, you prefer no agreement
What is the bargaining zone?
The positive overlap of the two parties range between their Target point and their Resistance point
What is the Negative Bargaining zone
When one or both parties share no overlap with each others points -> Walk away
What is does BATNA stand for
Best
Alternative
To a
Negotiable
Agreement
What Is BATNA (Best alternative to a negotiable agreement)
What else is out there instead of the given party your negotiating with
ex: Negotiating with House A for 100,000 but similar house B is going for 75,000 so BATNA for buyer = 75,000
Premium price is?
is BATNA +/- things that make you
want to do the deal (premium)
What is the Anchoring Affect?
Cognitive bias where people rely too heavily on the first piece of information they receive (the “anchor”) when making decisions or negotiating.
This initial reference point skews subsequent judgments, even if the anchor is arbitrary or irrelevant.
What are Integrative Negotiations
- Also known as non-zero-sum or win-win
- Finding ways to increase the amount of pie on the table
- Finding solutions that are of value to both parties
What are the 4 hallmarks for Integrative Negotiations
*Value is created
*Value is claimed
*Other party feels good
*Protect or enhance the negotiation relationship
What are the sources of conflict at work
- Incompatible goals: goals of group A interfere with group B’s
- Differentiation: differences in training, beliefs, experiences, values
- Interdependence: own tasks/rewards depend on others’ performance
- Ambiguity: unclear or complete lack of rules on how work is done
- Resources: when groups compete for the same limited resources
- Group Identification: In-groups based on common interest, background, etc
What are the types of Conflicts
Task/Cognitive Conflict (Assertiveness)
Affective/Relationship Conflict (Cooperativeness)
Process Conflict
What is Task/Cognitive Conflict (Assertiveness)
- Conflict that is task-oriented and related to differences in perspectives and judgments regarding an issue
- May involve conflict of ideas, norms of civility, shared goals
- Functional because can lead to identifying solutions to problems
What is Affective/Relationship Conflict (Cooperativeness)
- Conflict is emotional and aimed at a person, not an issue
- Personality clashes; Conflicting individual goals
- May result in stress, retaliation, poor communication, poor decisions
What is Process Conflict
- Disagreement about plans for task execution, timelines, member roles and responsibilities, poor communication, poor decisions
What are the 5 types of conflict management strategies
Forcing/Competing
Avoiding
Compromising
Collaborating
Accommodating
What is Forcing
Imposing one’s will/goals on the other
party (Win-Lose Orientation)
What is Avoiding
Ignoring the issues creating the conflict
What is Compromising
Giving up some things to reach an
outcome. Search for middle ground
What is Collaborating
Attempting to find a solution that satisfies both parties’ goals as much as possible. (Win-Win Orientation)
What is Accommodating
Accepting and implementing the other party’s will/goals
What is “Power”
the capacity to achieve one’s ends
EX: A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do
What was the Milgram Experiment
The test of how ordinary people will do things under the command of authority, where they would “Shock” someone if they got a wrong answer and subsequently increasing the volts
What was the Stanford prison experiment
An experiment that showed how authority (ie: Prison guard) can corrupt the average person into becoming cruel
What are the 6 sources/bases of power?
- Legitimate
- Reward
- Coercive
- Expert
- Referent
- Informational
What are the 4 Contingencies of Power
- Substitutability
- Centrality
- Discretion
- Visibility
What are the Sources of power based on Role:
- Legitimate
- Reward
- Coercive
What are the sources of power that are based on Characteristics
- Expert
- Referent
What is Legitimate power
- The capacity to influence through formal authority (comes with job description)
- High power distance vs. low power distance cultures
- Type of organization matter (Army vs.
University)
What is Coercive Power
- The ability to apply punishment (fear-based)
What is Reward Power
- The ability to distribute organizational
rewards (promotions, time off, desired work assignment)
What is Expert Power
- Power based on a person’s experience and knowledge
- We respect their expertise and defer to their judgment
What is Referent power
- You like the person and enjoy doing things for him or her
- Comes from within the person, and usually associated with charisma
What is Information power
- Communication flow?
- This kind of power relates to legitimate or expert sources of power and it comes in two forms:
What are the two forms of information power that lets it relate to Legitimate and Expert power
- Control over the flow and interpretation of information given to others
- The perceived ability to cope with organizational uncertainties.
What are the 3 responses to power
- Commitment
- Compliance
- Resistance
What is the Commitment response to power
The person is enthusiastic about the request and carries the task out
What is the Compliance response to power
The person goes along with the request grudgingly, putting in minimal effort
What is the Resistance response to power
The person is opposed to the request and tries to avoid it
What is the most effective Base of power in leadership
From 1-5
Most -> least (Most = 1 Least = 5)
1. Referent
2. Expert
3. Legitimate
4. Reward
5. Coercive
Effective are more likely to use what two bases of power
Referent power
Expert power
The most common but least effective base of power used by managers is
Positional power
What are the 4 main factors that can increase your Positional power
- Substituability/ Relevance
- Centrality
- Flexibility\discration
- Visibility
What is Substitutability / Relevance
refers to the availability
of alternatives, not only sources that offer the resource but also
substitutions of the resource itself:
- Power is strongest when someone has a monopoly over a valued resource
- Non-substitutability is when there are no alternate sources
What is Centrality
refers to the power
holder’s importance based on the degree and nature of
interdependence between the
power holder and others
- Centrality increases with the
number of people dependent on you as well as how quickly and severely they are affected by that dependence
What is Flexibility (Power increase wise)
Flexibility is determined by:
* work assignments
- Can you improvise or innovate?
- life cycle of the position
- Newer position is more flexible
- Reward structure
-Does the organization reward
innovation or predictability
What is Visibility (Power increase wise)
An awareness of a
person and their resources (the
obviousness of a person’s stature and resources)
- Interacting with influential people in the organization such as senior officials, decision makers, and informal leaders
(Making sure your work is being seen)
What are the 4 contingencies of PERSONAL power
- Expertise
- Personal Attraction
- Effort
- Legitimacy
Personal Attraction is based off
1) Charisma
2) Agreeable behavior
3) Physical characteristics
What is charisma
Refers to a compelling
charm that can inspire
devotion in others
* A charismatic individual can
easily charm, persuade,
inspire and influence others
What is Agreeableness
We like people when we have a reason to believe they will:
* Support an open, honest, and loyal relationship
* Endure some sacrifices if the relationship should demand them
* Provide social reinforcement in the form of sympathy or empathy
* Engage in the social exchanges necessary to sustain a relationship
IE: Like people that are Likeable
What are the benefits of being Attractive
- Physically attractive people are paid more!
- Written work of attractive
people has been rated as higher quality
IE: Looks are everything
What is legitimacy (Different from legitimate power)
Taking action congruent with the prevailing value system
- Not necessarily the best/most efficient way of doing things, but it is the way things
What is Influence
Any kind of behaviour that attempts to alter another person’s attitudes of behaviour
What are the 9 Influence tactics
Salient authority
Assertiveness
Information control
Coalition formation
Upward appeal
Ingratiation
Consultation
Exchange
Persuasion
What is Salient authority (Influence tactic)
Complying because you are aware of the requester’s legitimate or expert power
What is Assertiveness (Influence tactic)
Actively applying legitimate and coercive power (also known as ‘vocal authority’)
What is Informational Control (Influence tactic)
- Explicitly manipulating others access to information
ex: Spreading rumours
Whistle-blowing
What is Coalition Formation (Influence tactic)
- People with common interests band together (perception)
What is Upward Appeal (Influence tactic)
Relying on support from people higher up in hierarchy (Teachers pet)
What is Ingratiation (Influence tactic)
- Increasing the perception of liking or similarity to another person
- Concaving effect
What is Consultation (Influence tactic)
Getting others involved in the decision in an effort to support your objectives
What is Exchange (Influence tactic)
Offering favors or benefits
in exchange for support
ex: Bribes or lobbying
What is Persuasion (Influence tactic)
a process aimed at changing a
person’s (or a group’s) attitude or behaviour toward some event, idea, object, or other persons Appeals
What are the 3 appeals that someone might try to influence
- Rational appeal – Using facts and data to support your ideas
- Personal appeals – Appealing to loyalty & friendship
- Inspirational appeals – Appealing to values, emotions, Ideals, and goals when making a request
* Appeals to Ethics
Impression management is
The process of actively shaping our public image
What are the 7 Impression management tactics are
- Ingratiation
- favours
- Excuses
- Apologies
- Self promotion
- Enhancement
- Flattery
What re the 7 principles in influence tactics
- Reciprocity
- Commitment
- Consistency
- Social Proof
- Liking
- Authority
- Scarcity
What are the three theories of Leadership
- Trait Theories
- Behavioural Theories
- Contingency Theories
What are trait theories
The innate qualities and characteristics that make an effective leader. These theories suggest that certain personality traits, abilities, and dispositions predispose individuals to be successful leaders.
What are some limitations of Trait theories
- No definitive list of traits (highly
subjective traits) - Not very useful until matched with
the Big Five Personality Framework
What are the 4 traits that indicate someone might become a leader in Trait theory
- Extroversion – outgoing people tend to become leaders
- Conscientiousness – discipline and keeping commitments
- Openness – creative and flexible
- Emotional Intelligence
Ohio state Found two key dimensions of leader behaviour and they are
Initiating structure – the defining
and structuring of roles
Consideration – job relationships
that reflect trust and respec
Michigan university found two key dimensions of leader behaviour and they are
Production-oriented – emphasizes the
technical aspects of the job
Employee-oriented – emphasizes
interpersonal relationships and is the
most powerful dimension
What are the two theories that are in Contingency theories (Situational theories)
- Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational
Theory - Path-Goal Theory
What is the Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
A model that focuses on follower
“readiness”
Effectiveness depends on the followers’
response to the leader’s actions
What is “Readiness” in the Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
“Readiness” is the extent to which
people have the ability and willingness
to accomplish a specific task
What are the four types of followers and how do they need to be led in the Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
(Delegating): both able and willing
* Leader: a laissez-faire approach will work
(Participating): able but unwilling
* Leader: needs to use a supportive and participative style
(Selling): unable but willing
* Leader: needs to display high task orientation and high relationship orientation
(Telling): unable and unwilling
* Leader: needs to give clear and specific directions
What is the main goal in the Path-Goal theory (Situational theory)
Define goals
Clarify paths
Remove obstacles
Provides support
What are the leadership behaviours needed in the Path-goal theory
- Directive
- Informs subordinates of expectations, gives guidance (tasks)
- Supportive
- Friendly and approachable, shows concern for status, well-being, and needs of subordinates
(relationships) - Participative
- Consults with subordinates, solicits suggestions, takes suggestions into consideration
- Achievement oriented
- Sets challenging goals, expects subordinates to
perform at highest level, continuously seeks improvement in performance, has confidence in highest motivations of employees (goal setting)
What is transformational leadership?
occurs when leaders and followers raise one another to higher level of
motivation and morality.
What is the difference between Transformational and Transactional Leadership
transactional leadership
lead to expected results,
transformational
leadership motivates followers to perform beyond expectations
What are some issues with Charismatic leaders
Ego-driven charismatic leaders allow their self- interest and personal
goals to override the organization’s goals
(What if their vision is wrong)
What re the four corner stones of Socialized Charismatic Leadership
- Truth telling
- Promise keeping
- Fairness
- Respect for the individual
What are the Six globe leadership styles
The performance-oriented style
The team-oriented style
The participative style
The humane style
The autonomous style
The self-protective
what are the characteristics of The performance-oriented style in (Globe leadership)
stresses high standards, decisiveness,
and innovation; seeks to inspire people around a vision; creates a passion among them to perform
What are the characteristics of The team-oriented style in (Globe leadership)
instills pride, loyalty, and collaboration
among organizational members; and highly values team cohesiveness
and a common purpose or goals
What are the characteristics of The participative style in (Globe leadership)
encourages input from others in decision- making and implementation; and emphasizes delegation and equality
What are the characteristics of The humane style (Globe leadership)
stresses compassion and generosity; and it is patient, supportive, and concerned with the well-being of others
What are the characteristics of The autonomous style in (Globe leadership)
is characterized by an independent,
individualistic, and self-centric approach to leadership
What are the characteristics of The
The self-protective in (Globe leadership)
emphasizes procedural, status-conscious, and ‘face-saving’ behaviors; and focuses on the safety and security of the individual and the group
What are the 4 requirements of actual decision making
- Bounded Rationality
- Satisficing
- Intuition
- Judgment Shortcuts
What is Bounded rationality
Limitations on one’s ability
to interpret, process, and
act on information
What is Satisficing
-Identifying a solution that is
“good enough”
-The first acceptable option
rather than the optimal one
What is intuition (Decision making)
non-conscious process created
from distilled experience that
results in quick decision
We often make decision based on (Perception or Reality)
Perception
When making decisions we often.. (BAD)
- Take shortcuts
- Have biases
What is the Dunning-Kruger Effect
- Low ability individuals think
they are better than they
are - You need a certain level of
skill/knowledge in an
activity to realize how truly
bad you are
What is confirmation bias
Selecting and using only
facts that support our
decision
where people favor, interpret, or recall information in a way that confirms their preexisting beliefs, while ignoring or dismissing evidence that contradicts them
What is the sunken cost fallacy
The Tendency to persist in an activity
because of previously invested
effort, time or money
(Playing more ranked games even tho on a loss streak)
What is the framing effect
cognitive bias where people react differently to the same information depending on how it is presented (or “framed”)
What is the planning fallacy
tendency of people to underestimate
the duration of time to complete a specific task or project
What is hindsight bias
Tendency to believe we
could accurately predict the
outcome, after the outcome
of the even is known
May lead to increase in
confidence and
performance (if reasonable)
But, may reduces our ability
to think rationally and learn
from the past
What does PICOC Stand for
P: population
I: Intervention
C: Comparison
O: Outcome
C: Context
