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Z OLD ESA 1- Metabolism > Nutrition, Body Weight and Homeostasis > Flashcards

Nutrition, Body Weight and Homeostasis Flashcards

1
Q

Define metabolism

A

The chemical process that occur within living organisms in order to maintain life.

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2
Q

What does metabolism consist of?

A

NAME?

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3
Q

What do oxidative pathways do?

A

Convert food to energy

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4
Q

What do fuel storage and mobilisation pathways do?

A

Allow food to be mobilised when we are not eating or need to increase energy

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5
Q

How to fuel storage and mobilisation pathways allow fuel to be mobilised?

A

Through interconversion of glycogen and fat stores

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6
Q

What do biosynthetic pathways do?

A

Produce basic building blocks for cells

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7
Q

What do detoxification pathways do?

A

Remove toxins

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8
Q

What are catabolic processes?

A

They break down molecules to release energy in form of reducing power

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9
Q

What are anabolic processes?

A

They use energy and raw materials to make larger molecules for growth and maintenance

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10
Q

Define energy

A

The capacity to do work

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11
Q

What kind of energy to cells use?

A

Chemical bond energy

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12
Q

How do cells use chemical bond energy?

A

Through the utilisation of ATP

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13
Q

What kind of work do cells do?

A

NAME?

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14
Q

What biosynthetic work do cells do?

A

Synthesis of cellular components

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15
Q

What transport work do cells do?

A

Movement of ions and nutrients across membranes

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16
Q

Why is the movement of ions across membranes important?

A

For neuronal communications

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17
Q

What mechanical work do cells do?

A

Muscle contraction

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18
Q

What electrical work do cells do?

A

Nervous conduction in the form of action potentials

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19
Q

Where does osmotic work occur?

A

In the kidney

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20
Q

Describe the structure of ATP

A

Adenine base linked to ribose sugar and 3 phosphates- alpha, beta and gamma.

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21
Q

How does ATP release energy?

A

Bond between beta and gamma phosphate breaks

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22
Q

Give the equation for ATP hydrolysis

A

ATP↔ ADP + Pi

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23
Q

Give 5 examples something that pushes ATP hydrolysis in the forward direction

A

NAME?

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24
Q

What pushes ATP hydrolysis in the backwards direction?

A

Energy production by oxidation

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25
Q

Give 4 examples of things oxidised for energy production

A

NAME?

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26
Q

How is ATP generated?

A

By breaking down the chemical bonds in food

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27
Q

Give 3 processes that generate ATP

A

NAME?

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28
Q

What is the official SI unit of energy?

A

kJ

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29
Q

How many kJ’s are there in 1 kcal (calorie)?

A

4.2

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30
Q

Give the 6 essential components of the diet

A

NAME?

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31
Q

Which of the essential components of the diet can’t be digested?

A

Fibre

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32
Q

What are carbohydrates required for?

A

Mostly supply energy

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33
Q

What are proteins required for?

A

Energy and amino acids

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34
Q

When are proteins utilised for energy?

A

In starvation

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35
Q

What are fats required for?

A

Energy and essential fatty acids

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36
Q

What are minerals required for?

A

Cofactors of enzymes

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37
Q

What is water required for?

A

Hydration

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38
Q

What is fibre required for?

A

Normal GI function

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39
Q

Why can’t fibre be digested?

A

Because humans can’t digest the 1,4-ß glycosidic bonds in cellulose, as they don’t have the enzyme

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40
Q

Give 4 examples of carbohydrates

A

NAME?

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41
Q

What is starch

A

A glucose polymer that is the carbohydrate storage molecule in plants

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42
Q

What are the monomers of sucrose?

A

Glucose and fructose

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43
Q

What are the monomers of lactose?

A

Glucose and galactose

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44
Q

What is the purpose of digestion of carbohydrates

A

To break larger carbohydrates into monosaccharides

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45
Q

Why must larger carbohydrates be broken down into monosaccharides?

A

So they can be absorbed in the blood

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46
Q

What are proteins composed of?

A

Amino acids in linear chains

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47
Q

How are amino acids in proteins linked?

A

Peptide bonds

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48
Q

What effect does digestion have on proteins?

A

Breaks them down into constituent amino acids

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49
Q

What happens to the amino acid products of digestion?

A

They are absorbed into the blood

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50
Q

How many amino acids are used for protein synthesis in the body?

A

20

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51
Q

How do amino acids differ from one another?

A

They each have a different side chain

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52
Q

How many essential amino acids are there?

A

9

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53
Q

Why are essential amino acids so called?

A

They cannot be synthesised by the body

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54
Q

What is the result of the inability of the body to synthesise essential amino acids?

A

They must be obtained from diet

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55
Q

How must protein hormones enter the body

A

Injected

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56
Q

Why must protein hormones be injected?

A

Otherwise the body would break them down

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57
Q

What are the 9 essential amino acids?

A
  • Isoleucine
  • Lysine
  • Threonine
  • Histidine
  • Leucine
  • Methionine
  • Phenylalanine
  • Tryptophan
  • Valine
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58
Q

What is meant by conditionally essential?

A

Some amino acids are only essential in extreme circumstances

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59
Q

When may amino acids be conditionally essential?

A

In children and pregnant women

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60
Q

Why might amino acids be conditionally essential in children and pregnant women?

A

High rate of protein synthesis as rapid growth rate

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61
Q

What 3 amino acids are conditionally essential in children and pregnant women?

A

NAME?

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62
Q

What is the difference between protein of animal origin and plant origin?

A

Protein of animal origin ‘high quality’- contains all amino acids. Proteins of plant origin usually deficient in 1+ essential amino acids

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63
Q

What is the result of protein of plant origin being of lower quality?

A

Vegetarians need proteins from wide variety of sources

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64
Q

What are lipids composed of?

A

Triacylglycerols

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65
Q

What are triacylglycerols composed of?

A

3 fatty acids esterified to 1 glycerol

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66
Q

What are the 2 types of lipids?

A

NAME?

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67
Q

What is the result of a double bond in a lipid?

A

Allows more flexibility

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68
Q

How do fats differ from carbohydrates or protein?

A

They have much less oxygen

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69
Q

What is the result of fats having less oxygen than carbohydrates or protein?

A

They are more reduced, so yield more energy when oxidised

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70
Q

What are fats required for?

A

NAME?

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71
Q

What are the 4 fat soluble vitamins?

A

NAME?

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72
Q

What are the two essential fatty acids?

A

NAME?

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73
Q

What kind of constituent are minerals in the diet?

A

Microconstituent

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74
Q

What is the role of electrolytes in cells?

A

They establish ion gradients across membranes and maintain a water balance

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75
Q

Give an example of an electrolyte required in the body

A

Cl -

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76
Q

Why is Cl - required in the diet?

A

It is an essential electrolyte for sodium potassium ATPase, needed to establish ion gradients

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77
Q

Give two examples of macrominerals

A

NAME?

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78
Q

What are macrominerals essential for?

A

Structure, e.g. bones and teeth

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79
Q

Other than structure, what is calcium important for?

A

Important signalling molecule

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80
Q

Give 7 examples of enzyme cofactors

A

NAME?

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81
Q

Give an example of a process that requires an enzyme cofactor

A

Glutathione peroxidase, required to combat oxidative stress, requires selenium

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82
Q

What is iron essential for?

A

Component of haemoglobin

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83
Q

From high to low amount, how much of a mineral is needed?

A

Electrolytes→ minerals→ trace minerals→ ultratrace

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84
Q

In what quantity are vitamins required?

A

Very small

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85
Q

Are vitamins fat or water soluble?

A

Can be either

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86
Q

What happens if someone has incorrect vitamin intake?

A

If too little, can get deficiency diseases

Can also have vitamin excess

87
Q

Give an example of a vitamin excess disease, and it’s effects

A

NAME?

88
Q

Give 4 examples of fat soluble vitamins

A

NAME?

89
Q

Give 10 examples of water soluble vitamins

A
  • B1 (Thiamine)
  • B12
  • B6
  • Biotin
  • C
  • Choline
  • Folate
  • Niacin
  • Pantothenic acid
  • Riboflavin
90
Q

What disease is caused by a deficiency in vitamin A?

A

Xerophthalmia

91
Q

What disease is caused by a deficiency in vitamin D?

A

Rickets

92
Q

What is caused by a deficiency in vitamin E?

A

Neurological abnormalities

93
Q

What is caused by a deficiency in vitamin K?

A

Defective blood clotting

94
Q

What disease is caused by a deficiency in vitamin B1?

A

Benberi

95
Q

What disease is caused by a deficiency in vitamin B12?

A

Anaemia

96
Q

What diseases are caused by a deficiency in vitamin B6?

A

Dermatitis, anaemia

97
Q

What is caused by a deficiency in biotin?

A

Alopecia, scaly skin, CNS defects

98
Q

What disease is caused by a deficiency in vitamin C?

A

Scurvy

99
Q

What is caused by a deficiency in choline?

A

Liver damage

100
Q

What is caused by a deficiency in folate?

A

Neural tube defects, anaemia

101
Q

What disease is caused by a deficiency in niacin?

A

Pellagra

102
Q

What is caused by a deficiency in pantothenic acid?

A

Fatigue, apathy

103
Q

What disease is caused by a deficiency in riboflavin?

A

Ariboflavinisis

104
Q

What vitamins have an antioxidant role?

A

A and C

105
Q

What antioxidant role do vitamins A and C have?

A

They are free radical scroungers

106
Q

Give 4 examples of dietary fibres

A

NAME?

107
Q

What is dietary fibre essential for?

A

Normal GI function

108
Q

Can dietary fibres be broken down by human digestive enzymes?

A

No

109
Q

What is the recommended intake of dietary fibre?

A

18g/day

110
Q

What is the consequence of low dietary fibre?

A

NAME?

111
Q

What is the result of high dietary fibre intake?

A

Reduced cholesterol

112
Q

Why does a high dietary fibre intake reduce cholesterol?

A

Bile salts are secreted into the stomach, which requires cholesterol. Fibre absorbs bile salts, so if there is high fibre intake, more bile salts are absorbed, so less bile salts reabsorbed into liver. This means that more bile salts must be made, so more cholesterol used.

113
Q

What is the advantage of lower cholesterol?

A

Lower risk of diabetes

114
Q

Who publishes dietary reference values (DRV’s)?

A

SACN

115
Q

What are DRVs?

A

A series of estimates of amount of energy and nutrients needed by different groups of the UK population

116
Q

What is the reference nutrient intake (RNI)?

A

The level of protein, vitamins and minerals that would meet the needs of 97.5% of the population

117
Q

When is the estimated average requirement (EAR) used?

A

For energy

118
Q

What is the EAR?

A

The energy requirement for 50% of the group

119
Q

What is the lower reference nutrient value (LRNI)?

A

The level that would be enough for 2.5% of the population- the majority need more

120
Q

When is safe intake used?

A

When there is insufficient data

121
Q

What do nutrient requirements depend on?

A

NAME?

122
Q

How are nutrient requirements established?

A

By review of scientific evidence and frequency distribution for groups

123
Q

Are nutrient requirements applicable to individuals?

A

No- groups.

124
Q

Give 4 things that daily energy requirements depend upon

A
  • Age
  • Sex
  • Body composition
  • Physical activity
125
Q

What is daily energy expenditure equal too?

A

Basal metabolic rate + diet induced thermogenesis + physical activity level

126
Q

What is the basal metabolic rate?

A

The energy used to keep the body going, e.g. for liver function, brain etc.

127
Q

What is diet induced thermogenesis?

A

Energy required to process food

128
Q

Give two examples of things required for the maintenance of cells

A
  • Ion transport across membrane

- Biochemical reactions

129
Q

What percentage of the BMR is accounted for by the skeletal muscle?

A

30

130
Q

What percentage of the BMR is accounted for by the brain?

A

20

131
Q

What percentage of the BMR is accounted for by the heart?

A

10

132
Q

What percentage of the BMR is accounted for by other organs?

A

20

133
Q

Give 5 factors that affect BMR

A

NAME?

134
Q

How does body size affect BMR?

A

Depends on surface area

135
Q

How does gender affect BMR?

A

It is higher in males

136
Q

How does environmental temperature affect BMR?

A

It increases when it’s cold

137
Q

How does endocrine status affect BMR?

A

It is increased in hyperthyroidism

138
Q

How does body temperature affect BMR?

A

It increases by 12% per degree

139
Q

What does energy required for voluntary physical activity depend on?

A

Intensity

140
Q

What systems does voluntary physical activity increase energy demand for?

A

NAME?

141
Q

What happens to the heart and breathing rate with physical activity?

A

They increase

142
Q

What does an increase in energy demand with activity reflect?

A

An increase in demand on skeletal muscle

143
Q

Why does skeletal muscle require more energy with activity?

A

Skeletal muscle hydrolyses ATP to form cross bridges that underlie skeletal muscle contraction.

144
Q

How does skeletal muscle contraction work?

A

Muscle contraction is determined by myosin in the thick filament and actin in the thin filament. Myosin head binds to thin filament, hydrolyses ATP (chops off gamma phosphate). Energy released used to change the myosin head, which draws the filaments over each other.

145
Q

What is the very short term energy store?

A

Creatine phosphate

146
Q

Where is creatine phosphate found?

A

In the muscles

147
Q

How much creatine phosphate do the muscle contain?

A

A few seconds worth

148
Q

What energy store is used for immediate use?

A

Carbohydrate stores

149
Q

What form are the carbohydrate stores in?

A

Glycogen

150
Q

What is the time scale for glycogen utilisation?

A

Minutes to hours

151
Q

Where is glycogen stored?

A

Muscles and liver

152
Q

Where are the long term energy stores?

A

Adipose

153
Q

How much energy is stored in adipose?

A

About 40 days worth

154
Q

Where does energy come from in emergency situations?

A

Muscle protein converted to carbohydrate

155
Q

Why is muscle protein only used as an energy source in emergency situations?

A

The body wants to conserve muscle mass

156
Q

What is the main difference in body composition between men and women?

A

Fat

157
Q

What happens to body composition in obesity?

A

Not everything in body increases, just adipose tissue

158
Q

What happens if energy intake = expenditure?

A

The body weight is stable

159
Q

What happens if energy intake > expenditure?

A

Energy stores increase

160
Q

What happens if energy intake

A

Body components, e.g. protein, utilised to provide energy

161
Q

What is obesity?

A

Excessive fat accumulation in adipose tissues

162
Q

What is the result of obesity?

A

It impairs health

163
Q

How is obesity usually measured?

A

In BMI

164
Q

What BMI would be considered obese?

A

Over 30

165
Q

What is the problem with obesity?

A

It is the major preventable cause of death in developed countries, with an increasing prevalence

166
Q

What health issues is obesity associated with?

A
  • Increased risk of some cancers
  • Cardiovascular disease
  • Type 2 diabetes
167
Q

What is the unit for BMI?

A

kg/m 2

168
Q

How is BMI calculated?

A

Weight (kg) / Height 2 (m 2 )

169
Q

What is BMI used for?

A

To clinically evaluate a patients weight

170
Q

What BMI is considered underweight?

A

Under 18.5

171
Q

What BMI is considered normal?

A

18.5 - 24.9

172
Q

What BMI is considered overweight?

A

25 - 29.9

173
Q

What BMI is considered severely obese?

A

Over 35

174
Q

Under what conditions is BMI measured?

A

NAME?

175
Q

What is the advantage of a BMI measurement?

A

Good correlation with body fat measurement

176
Q

What is the disadvantage of a BMI measurement?

A

Very muscular individuals may be classified as obese

177
Q

What is an alternative to BMI?

A

Hip-to-waist ratio

178
Q

What has been evidenced to be clinically important?

A

Distribution of body fat

179
Q

Why is distribution of body fat clinically important?

A

Greater proportion of fat in upper body (especially abdomen) compared with hips is associated with increased risk of-

  • insulin resistance
  • hyperinsulinism
  • type 2 diabetes
  • stroke
  • hypertension
  • hyperlipidaemia
  • premature death
180
Q

What is a major preventable cause of death in developing countries?

A

Malnutrition

181
Q

What are the two main types of malnutrition?

A
  • Kwashiorkor

- Marasmus

182
Q

What is kwashiorkor?

A

Protein deficiency

183
Q

What is marasmus?

A

Insufficient energy

184
Q

Why does malnutrition cause death?

A

Due to damage from low energy intake and deficiency diseases of other nutrients

185
Q

What can low protein intake result in?

A

Insufficient blood protein synthesis

186
Q

Why does low protein synthesis result in insufficient blood protein synthesis?

A

Inhibition of the liver to create proteins such as albumin

187
Q

What is the result of insufficient blood protein production?

A

A decrease in plasma osmotic pressure and oedema

188
Q

What is Starlings Law of the Capillary?

A

Flow net = (P c - P i ) - (π c - π i )

When

  • P x = hydrostatic pressure
  • π x = oncotic pressure
  • X c = of capillary
  • X i = of interstitial fluid
189
Q

Using Starling’s Law of Capillary, what causes oedema?

A

π c decreases because of decrease in plasma protein, therefore increased net flow of fluid into interstitial fluid

190
Q

What does fluid oedema lead to?

A

Distended abdomen

191
Q

Give 6 functions of blood

A
  • Transport
  • Coagulation
  • Immune functions
  • Regulation of body pH
  • Regulation of core body temperature
  • Hydraulic functions
192
Q

What are the transport functions of blood?

A
  • O 2 and nutrient supply
  • Removal of waste products
  • Signalling
193
Q

What are the nutrients supplied by the blood used for?

A

NAME?

194
Q

Give 3 waste products removed by the blood

A
  • CO 2
  • Urea
  • Lactic acid
195
Q

How is the blood used for signalling?

A

By transporting hormones

196
Q

Why is metabolite measurement in the blood used rather than using actual tissue samples?

A

Difficult to examine actual tissues with metabolic problem, as could be dangerous or expensive to biopsy

197
Q

What are the advantages of using blood to measure metabolite concentrations?

A
  • Blood readily obtainable

- Tests inexpensive

198
Q

What could an increase or decrease in concentrations of substances found in blood mean?

A

Could be used as diagnostic tool to help indicate nature of problem

199
Q

Give an example of where a change in concentration of substances in blood could be used as a diagnostic tool

A

An increase in ketone bodies could be indicative of diabetes

200
Q

Are normal ranges of substances found in blood absolute or typical?

A

Typical - they vary within a range

201
Q

What does the concentration of substances in the blood depend on?

A

NAME?

202
Q

What can happen when the skeletal muscle, liver and adipose tissue release the substances they store?

A

Can change the concentrations of nutrients in the blood plasma

203
Q

Which organs can interconvert substances?

A

NAME?

204
Q

Which tissues can utilise nutrients?

A

All

205
Q

What do homeostatic mechanisms do?

A

Act to counteract changes in the internal enviroment

206
Q

Are body systems in a steady state?

A

No, in a dynamic equilibrium

207
Q

What is the result of homeostatic failure?

A

Disease

208
Q

What levels do homeostatic mechanisms exist on?

A

All- cell, tissue, organ, organism

209
Q

Are homeostatic mechanisms independent or interdependent for the variable being regulated?

A

NAME?

210
Q

What are the 4 main aspects of a homeostatic mechanism?

A

NAME?

211
Q

What does the receptor do?

A

Monitors and responds to changes in environment

212
Q

What does the control centre do?

A
  • Sets range where variable is maintained
  • Determines appropriate response
  • Sends signal to effector
213
Q

What does the effector do?

A

Brings about desired changes

214
Q

What does negative feedback do?

A

Corrects deviation

Z OLD ESA 1- Metabolism (17 decks)

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