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Z OLD ESA 1- Metabolism > Homeostasis and the Endocrine System > Flashcards

Homeostasis and the Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 characteristics of a control system?

A

Stimulus, Receptor, Control centre, Effector

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2
Q

What does a receptor do?

A

Detects stimuli

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3
Q

Give 4 examples of receptors

A

NAME?

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4
Q

Give 2 examples of things chemoreceptors respond to?

A
  • Hormones

- Neurotransmitters

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5
Q

What do proprioreceptors do?

A

Give awareness of position

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6
Q

What do nociceptors do?

A

Detects painful stimuli

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7
Q

How does the receptor communicate with the control centre?

A

By the afferent pathway

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8
Q

How does the nervous system communicate?

A

Action potentials

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9
Q

How does the endocrine system communicate?

A

Hormones

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10
Q

Where is the control centre typically located?

A

In the brain, usually the hypothalamus

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11
Q

What does the control centre do?

A

NAME?

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12
Q

How does the control centre communicate with the effector?

A

The efferent pathway

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13
Q

What does the effector do?

A

Causes change

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14
Q

Give 3 examples of effectors

A

NAME?

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15
Q

What usually happens once the effector has caused change?

A

Negative feedback

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16
Q

In what direction does negative feedback act?

A

In direction opposing original stimulus

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17
Q

What does negative feedback do?

A

Responds in a way to reverse the direct change

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18
Q

What does positive feedback do?

A

Responds in a way as to change the variable even more in the direction of change

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19
Q

When is positive feedback used?

A

When rapid change is desirable

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20
Q

Give 3 examples of where positive feedback is used

A
  • Blood clotting
  • Ovulation
  • The Ferguson reflex during childbirth
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21
Q

Is the set point of a control centre constant or variable?

A

Variable

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22
Q

What rhythm does the body display?

A

Circadian (or diurnal)

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23
Q

What does the ‘biological clock’ in brain consist of?

A

Small group of neurones in suprachiasmatic nucleus

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24
Q

What does the biological clock respond to?

A

Cues from environment- Zietgeben

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25
Q

What cues from the environment keep the body on a 24h cycle?

A

NAME?

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26
Q

Give an example of the manifestation of disruption of biological rhythms?

A

Jet lag

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27
Q

What causes jet lag?

A

Mismatch of the environmental cues and body clock when long haul flights cross time zones

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28
Q

How much body water does the average person have?

A

42L

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29
Q

What does body water content vary between?

A

NAME?

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30
Q

What are the 3 main compartments containing body water?

A

NAME?

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31
Q

What is the osmotic pressure of the blood plasma monitored by?

A

Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus

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32
Q

What is osmolarity?

A

Number of osmoles per litre of solution

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33
Q

What is osmolality?

A

The number of osmoles per Kg of solution

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34
Q

What is an osmole?

A

The amount of substance that dissociates in solution to form one mole of osmotically active product

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35
Q

What is responsible for bodily fluid homeostasis?

A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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36
Q

Why is it important to keep osmolarity in set range?

A

Otherwise causes disruption to cells- can cause them to shrink or burst

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37
Q

What is it called when there is high blood osmolarity?

A

Hypertonicity

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38
Q

What must happen when the blood is hypertonic?

A

The body needs to conserve water

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39
Q

What are osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus technically detecting?

A

Tonicity, because across a membrane

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40
Q

What does hypertonicity lead to?

A

NAME?

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41
Q

Why does hypertonicity cause thirst?

A

Because drinking reduces osmolarity, and so returns normal blood osmolarity

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42
Q

Is ADH synthesised by the posterior pituitary?

A

No, just secreted- synthesised in hypothalamus

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43
Q

Why does the body secrete more ADH when the blood is hypertonic?

A

Because it increases reabsorption of water from the urine into blood via collecting ducts in the kidney, leading to a return to normal blood osmolarity

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44
Q

What does the reabsorption of water from urine cause?

A

A smaller volume of concentrated urine

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45
Q

What does the body need to do when there is low blood osmolarity?

A

Excrete water

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46
Q

What detects low blood osmolarity?

A

Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus

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47
Q

What happens in response to low blood osmolarity?

A

Posterior pathway secretes less ADH

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48
Q

What is the result of decreased secretion of ADH?

A

Decreased absorption of water from the urine into the blood from the collecting ducts of the kidney, leading to large volumes of dilute urine and a return to normal blood osmolarity

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49
Q

What does the endocrine system consist of?

A

A collection of glands located throughout the body

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50
Q

What are hormones?

A

Chemical signals produced in endocrine glands or tissues that travel in the bloodstream to cause an effect on other tissues

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51
Q

What are the major endocrine glands?

A
  • Hypothalamus
  • Pituitary glands
  • Pineal glands
  • Thyroid glands
  • Parathyroid glands
  • Thymus
  • Pancreas
  • Adrenal gland
  • Ovary
  • Testis
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52
Q

What can release hormones other than endocrine glands?

A

Other organs and tissues

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53
Q

What other organs and tissues release important hormones?

A

NAME?

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54
Q

What hormones does the heart produce?

A

NAME?

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55
Q

What hormone does the liver produce?

A

IGF1

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56
Q

What hormones does the stomach produce?

A

NAME?

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57
Q

What hormones does the placenta produce?

A

NAME?

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58
Q

What hormone does the adipose produce?

A

Leptin

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59
Q

What hormones does the kidney produce?

A

NAME?

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60
Q

What are the 4 mechanisms of communication via hormones?

A

NAME?

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61
Q

How does autocrine communication work?

A

Hormone signal acts back on cell of origin

62
Q

How does paracrine communication work?

A

Hormone signal carried to adjacent cell over a short distance via interstitial fluid

63
Q

How does endocrine communication work?

A

Hormone signal released into bloodstream carried to distant target cells

64
Q

How does neurocrine communication work?

A

Hormone originates in neurone, and after transport down axon, released into bloodstream and carried to distant target cells

65
Q

Where is neurocrine communication important?

A

In hypothalamic pituitary axis

66
Q

What features to endocrine and nervous system have in common?

A
  • Both neurones and endocrine cells are capable of secreting
  • Both neurones and endocrine cells can be depolarised
  • Some molecules act on both neurotransmitters and hormones
  • The mechanism of action requires interaction with specific receptors in the target cells
67
Q

What do neurones secrete?

A

Neurotransmitters

68
Q

Why can both neurones and endocrine cells be depolarised?

A

They are both excitable cells with a resting membrane potential

69
Q

What do the endocrine and nervous systems work in parallel to do?

A

Control homeostasis

70
Q

What are the differences between endocrine and nervous systems?

A
  • The signal for the endocrine system is hormones, whereas for the nervous system it is neurotransmitters and action potentials
  • The signals for the endocrine system are chemical in nature, whereas they are both chemical and electrical for the nervous system
  • Signals from the endocrine system are conveyed in the bloodstream, whereas the nervous signals are conveyed by synapses and axons
  • Endocrine signals are slow, whereas nervous signals are fast
71
Q

What groups are hormones classified into?

A

NAME?

72
Q

Which is the largest group of hormones?

A

Peptide/polypeptides

73
Q

What do peptide/polypeptide hormones consist of?

A

Short chains of amino acids

74
Q

Give 3 examples of peptide/polypeptide hormones

A
  • Insulin
  • Glucagon
  • Growth hormones
75
Q

Are peptide/polypeptide hormones water or lipid soluble?

A

All water soluble

76
Q

What are amino acids derivatives synthesised form?

A

Amino acids (tyrosine)

77
Q

Give 3 examples of amine hormones

A
  • Adrenaline
  • Noradrenaline
  • Thyroid hormones
78
Q

Are amine hormones water or lipid soluble?

A
  • Adrenal medulla hormones water soluble

- Thyroid hormones lipid soluble

79
Q

Are do glycoprotein hormones consist of?

A

Large protein molecules, that tend to be glycosylated. Often made up of sub-units

80
Q

What is meant by glycosylated?

A

They have a carbohydrate side chain

81
Q

Give 3 examples of glycoprotein hormones

A
  • Lutenizing hormone
  • Follicle stimulating hormone
  • Thyroid stimulating hormone
82
Q

Are glycoproteins water or lipid soluble?

A

Water

83
Q

What are steroid hormones derived from?

A

Cholesterol

84
Q

Where are steroid hormones produced?

A

Steroidogenic tissues

85
Q

Give 3 examples of steroid hormones

A
  • Cortisol
  • Aldosterone
  • Testosterone
86
Q

Are steroid hormones water or lipid soluble?

A

Lipid

87
Q

How are hormones transported?

A
  • Some hormones in the blood in simple solution

- Most hormones bind to (usually) proteins

88
Q

Give two examples of hormones that can travel in the blood in simple solution

A

NAME?

89
Q

What feature must a hormone have to be able to travel in the blood in simple solution?

A

Water soluble

90
Q

What group of hormones bind to proteins to travel in the blood in particular?

A

Steroid

91
Q

Give an example of a hormone that binds to a specific protein for transport?

A

Thyroid hormones bind to thyroxine-binding globulin

92
Q

What exists between bound and free forms of hormone in plasma?

A

Dynamic equilibrium

93
Q

What form of a hormone is biologically active?

A

Only the free form

94
Q

Give the equilibrium between bound and free forms of a hormone

A

Free hormone + binding protein ↔ bound hormone

95
Q

What are the roles of carrier proteins?

A

NAME?

96
Q

What 3 main factors determine hormone levels in the blood?

A
  • Rate of production
  • Rate of delivery
  • Rate of degradation
97
Q

What is the most highly regulated aspect of hormonal control?

A

Rate of production

98
Q

What does rate of production of hormone consist of?

A
  • Synthesis

- Secretion

99
Q

What would result in a higher rate of delivery of hormone?

A

Increased blood flow to a particular organ

100
Q

What is meant by rate of degradation of hormones?

A

The rate at which its metabolised and excreted from body

101
Q

At what concentrations do hormones circulate in the blood?

A

Very low

102
Q

What do hormones do to exert their effects?

A

Bind to specific receptors

103
Q

Why are hormone receptors needed?

A

For specificity, as the blood stream bathes all cells

104
Q

What do endocrine cells do?

A

Synthesise and release hormone into the bloodstream

105
Q

What happens to hormones in the blood stream?

A

It’s carried to distant target tissue

106
Q

What happens in a non-target cell?

A

There is no receptor for hormones, so no response to hormone

107
Q

What happens in a target cell?

A

It has expressed the specific receptor for hormone, and so there is a specific cellular response to hormone

108
Q

What do water soluble hormones bind to?

A

Cell surface receptors

109
Q

Why do water soluble hormones bind to cell surface receptors?

A

As they can’t cross the plasma membrane

110
Q

Give an example of a G protein coupled receptor

A

Adrenaline receptors

111
Q

What is the mechanism of action for a G protein coupled receptor?

A
  • Dissociation of G protein sub-unit
  • Activation of effector protein
  • Formation of second messenger
  • Activation of protein kinase
  • Phosphorylation of target proteins
  • Cellular response
112
Q

Give an example of a tyrosine kinase receptor

A

An insulin receptor

113
Q

What is the mechanism of action for a tyrosine kinase?

A
  • Dimerisation
  • Autophosphorylation of specific tyrosines
  • Recruitment of adaptor proteins and signalling complexes
  • Activation of protein kinase
  • Phosphorylation of target proteins
  • Cellular response
114
Q

Where does dimerisation not occur in a tyrosine kinase?

A

In an insulin receptor

115
Q

Why does dimerisation not occur in an insulin receptor?

A

It is already dimerised

116
Q

What do lipid soluble hormones bind to?

A

Intracellular receptors

117
Q

Why can lipid soluble hormones bind to intracellular receptors?

A

Because they are able to diffuse across plasma membrane

118
Q

How does a type I lipid soluble hormone interact with its target cell?

A

Cytoplasmic receptor binds hormone, and receptor-hormone complex enters nucleus and binds DNA

119
Q

How does a type II lipid soluble hormone interact with it’s target cell?

A

Hormone enters nucleus and binds to a pre-bound receptor DNA. Binding relieves repression of gene transmission

120
Q

Where does a receptor bind to a DNA molecule?

A

To a specific sequence called a hormone response element (HRE) in the promoter region of specific genes

121
Q

What is the effect of hormonal binding to DNA?

A

It affects the mRNA, and therefore the new protein, which induces a cellular response

122
Q

What mediates the effect of a lipid soluble hormone?

A

The expression of new protein

123
Q

Do lipid soluble hormones promote or repress gene transcription rate?

A

Can do either

124
Q

What is the hypothalamic pituitary axis?

A

A complex functional unit formed by the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland that serves as the major link between the endocrine and nervous systems

125
Q

Where does the pituitary gland sit?

A

Beneath the hypothalamus, in a sock of bone called the sella turcia

126
Q

Give 8 processes that the hypothalamus and pituitary gland module

A
  • Body growth
  • Reproduction
  • Adrenal gland function
  • Water homeostasis
  • Milk secretion
  • Lactation
  • Thyroid gland function
  • Puberty
127
Q

What does the pituitary gland consist of?

A
  • Anterior pituitary gland (adenohypophysis)

- Posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)

128
Q

How are the anterior and posterior pituitary gland distinct from one another?

A
  • Different embryological origins

- Distinct functions

129
Q

Is the pituitary gland physically connected to the hypothalamus?

A

Yes, the posterior pituitary gland is

130
Q

How is the posterior pituitary gland connected to the hypothalamus?

A

The hypothalamus drops down through the infundibulum to form the posterior pituitary

131
Q

What is the neurocrine function of the posterior pituitary?

A
  • Oxytocin and ADH hormone are produced by neurones in the hypothalamus
  • These hormones are transported down nerve cell axons to the posterior pathway
  • The hormones are stored and released from the posterior pituitary into the general circulation to act on distinct targets
132
Q

How are hormones synthesised in the hypothalamus transported to the anterior pituitary?

A

They are transported down axons

133
Q

What happens to hormones once they are in the anterior pituitary?

A

They are stored in median eminence before release into hypophyseal portal system

134
Q

What is the neurocrine function of anterior pituitary hormones?

A

The hormones stimulate or inhibit target endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary gland

135
Q

What is the endocrine function of the anterior pituitary hormones?

A

The endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary secrete a variety of hormones into the bloodstream to act on distant target cells

136
Q

What is the autocrine and paracrine function of the anterior pituitary hormones?

A

The hormones also affect neighbouring cells

137
Q

In summary, what pathways do the hormones produced by nerve cells in the hypothalamus act?

A

NAME?

138
Q

What hormones are produced in the hypothalamus for release from the posterior pathway?

A

NAME?

139
Q

What does oxytocin do?

A

NAME?

140
Q

What does ADH do?

A

Regulates body water volume

141
Q

How many trophic hormones are there produced in the hypothalamus?

A

7

142
Q

What do trophic hormones do?

A

Have direct effects on release of anterior pituitary hormone

143
Q

What are the 7 trophic hormones produced in hypothalamus?

A

NAME?

144
Q

Give 6 hormones produced by the anterior pituitary

A

NAME?

145
Q

What does TSH do?

A

Controls secretion of thyroid hormone from the thyroid gland

146
Q

What does AOTH do?

A

Controls secretion of hormones from adrenal cortex

147
Q

What does LH do?

A

Controls ovulation and secretion of sex hormones

148
Q

What does FSH do?

A

Controls development of eggs and sperm

149
Q

What does PRL do?

A

Controls mammary gland development and milk secretion

150
Q

What does GH do?

A

Controls growth, and energy metabolism, and stimulates IGFs

151
Q

How are the pathways by which hypothalamic and anterior pituitary hormones are produced often regulated?

A

Negative feedback

Z OLD ESA 1- Metabolism (17 decks)

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