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NUR121 Flashcards

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1
Q

main parts of the central nervous system system

A

brain and spinal cord and PNS everything else including cranial nerves and spinal nerves that leave to the periphery

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2
Q

what 2 pathways come from the peripheral nervous system

A

• From peripheral ns there is afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) division

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3
Q

nerous system pathway from the motor efferent division

A

Motor/ efferent pathway has the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

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4
Q

nervous system pathway from the autonomic nervous system

A

• The autonomic nervous system can then be divided into the sympathetic and the parasympathetic pathway

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5
Q

main parts of peripheral nervous syetm

A

• Peripheral nervous system consists mainly of fibres cns really contains most nerve cell bodies

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6
Q

types of cells in the nervous system

A
  • Glia CNS
  • Glia PNS
  • Neurons or nerve cells
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7
Q

describe glia of CNS

A

 Astrocytes – most abundant, support, assist with exchange between capillaries and neurons
 Microglial cells – health monitors of neurons, can act as phagocytes (as immune cells cant really get into cns)
 Ependymal cells – line the brain cavities, involved in fluid exchange and circulation of CSF
 Oligodendrocytes – produce myelin sheath ( insulation around axon)

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8
Q

describe glia of PNS

A

 Satellite cells – similar to astrocytes, surround nerve cell bodies
 Schwann cells – create myelin sheath, similar to oligodendrocytes

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9
Q

describe neurons/ nerve cells

A

 Cell body with nucleus and organelles (ER = called Nissl bodies in nerve cells due to granular appearance)
 Dendrites – receive input
 Axon – send output (AP and synapses), can be myelinated or not

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10
Q

neuron structure

A
  • Cell body called soma
  • Info comes through dendrite or straight into cell body
  • Can see nissal bodes
  • Long extension Is axon/ nerve fiber that end up in axon terminals ( secretory region as they secrete neurotransmitters
  • Myline sheath has gaps in between called mylien sheath gaps or nodes of ranvier
  • Cell membrane of axon called axolemma
  • A bundle of axon is called a tract in the cns and a nerve in the pns
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11
Q

how long can neurons live up to

A

• Nerve cells can live up to 100 years and longer and usually don’t divide

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12
Q

do neurons have a high metabolic rate

A

Have very high metabolic rate and need loots of o2, will die in a few minutes without o2

• Lots of mitochondria

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13
Q

types of neurons (structural)

A

 Multipolar – many dendrites, one axon; most common, especially in CNS
 Bipolar – one dendrite, one axon; rare, in eye and nose
 Unipolar (or pseudounipolar) – one distal peripheral branch, one proximal central branch; mainly sensory neurons in the PNS

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14
Q

types of neurons (functional)

A

 Sensory or afferent – information towards CNS
(somatic, visceral)

 Motor or efferent – signals away from CNS
(skeletal muscle fibres and motor fibres of ANS to viceral smooth muscle fibres/ glands)

 Interneurons – association between nerve cells, often in between sensory and motor neurons 99% of neurons in brain but also in spinal cord

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15
Q

what is a collection of neuron cell bodies called in the CNS VS PNS

A

CNS- NUCLEUS

PNS- GANGLION

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16
Q

what is a tract

A

a bundle of axons in the CNS

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17
Q

what is a nerve

A

a bundle of axons in the PNS

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18
Q

how does information transfer happen in the nervous system

A

• Between nerve cells
• Use electrical charges that travel within neurons
• Use chemicals that bridge the gap between neurons (and effector cells, such as muscle fibres or glands)- usually neurotransmitters
• Use insulation (myelinated axons)
• Like a computer:
 Many signals both with regards to time (temporal) and location (spatial)
 Signals can either excite or inhibit the next area or neuron
 Large network

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19
Q

what is depolarisation

A

change of the original potential of -70mV towards 0 or even into positive

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20
Q

Repolarisation?

A

return to the original negative potential

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21
Q

Hyperpolarisation?

A

“overshooting” of the repolarisation into more negative

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22
Q

Threshold ?

A

the depolarisation that is required to lead to a proper AP; it depends on the strength of the stimulus- positive feedback mechanism

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23
Q

what are the different electric potentials in neurons

A
  • Resting membrane potential
  • Graded potential
  • Action potential
  • EPSP
  • IPSP
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24
Q

Resting membrane potential?

A

– established by K+ leaking out of the cell and the Na+/K+ pump

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25
Q

Graded potential ?

A

localised depolaristion or hyperpolarisation of the cell membrane; can only travel a short way; short-lived- usually happen at dendrites or the body of the nerve cells

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26
Q

Action potential ?

A

depolarisation triggered by Na+ influx into the cell; all or nothing rule

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27
Q

EPSP, excitatory post synaptic potential?

A

graded potential (depolarisation) at the postsynaptic membrane that leads to AP

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28
Q

IPSP,inhibitory post synaptic potential ?

A

graded potential (hyperpolarisation) at the postsynaptic membrane that decreases likelihood of an AP

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29
Q

Leakage channel ?

A

non gated channel; always open and allow Na+ to move into the cell and K+ to move out

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30
Q

Voltage-gated channel ?

A

opens or closes due to changes in membrane potential

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31
Q

Chemically gated channel

A

opens in response to the binding of a chemical, e.g. neurotransmitter, to a specific receptor

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32
Q

why more potassium out of cell then sodium

A

• Reason we have more k inside than outside is due to na k pump that pumps na out and k inside

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33
Q

grey matter?

A

nerve cell bodies and short unmyelinated axons and dendrites; distribution changes in different areas of the CNS, e.g. spinal cord vs cerebral hemispheres

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34
Q

white matter?

A

myelinated axons, often arranged in tracts

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35
Q

what are gradient potentials

A
  • Happen when triggered by stimulus to receptor or because neighboring nerve cell stimulates the dendrite or it could even be the same nerve cell- gradient p from dendrite or cell body travels to cell axon causing ap in axon
  • Gp are short lived potentials that travel only a short distance and are not very high
  • There are 2 types: can either depolarize or can be hyperpolarisatiosn
  • When they travel along the dendrite/ nerve cell they become weaker. Only if high enough will cause an ap. With hyperpolarization not a lot f chance so sort of inhibits passing on of a stimulus
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36
Q

how to normal action potentials in cells work

A
  • Starts with rmp -70. Gradient potential cmes along for example and that changes the voltage Gatd channels causing sodium to enter the cell 9 depolarisation occurs)
  • If reachines -55 millivolt threshold is reached then even more sodium enters and a proper action potential happens
  • eventually sodium voltage gated channels close and voltage gated potassium gates open
  • depolarization stops and repolarization occur movkng to resting membrane potential
  • hyperpolarization- charges goes below initial negative charge as k leaves the cell and eventually returns back to resting membrane potential
  • whilst those sodium channels are open, and depolarization happens if another stimulus arrives that cant trigger another action potential- called an absolute refractory period
  • During repolarization, if a new stimulus arrives that could trigger another depolarization straight away but that can only happen if it’s a very strong stimulus.- relative refractory period
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37
Q

how can nerve cells tell if a stimulus is strong enough

A

he way the nerve cell knows if it’s a strong stimulus is that we have many action potentials , so we increase the frequency. The stronger the stimulus the faster we have action potential following. Frequency relates to intencity

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38
Q

t or f

Action potential is always the same around +30

A

t

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39
Q

how many gates on sodium channels vs potassium channels

A
  • Sodium channels have 2 gates, start with activation gate so sodium can flow into the cell and once proper depolarization has been reached inactivation gate shuts and blocks more sodium from coming in
  • Whereas potassium channel only has one gates
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40
Q

synapse?

A

area we connect from one nerve cell to another or one nerve cell to a muscle

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41
Q

how is an impulse transmitted accross a synapse

A

• When ap arrives it triggers calcium voltage gated channels to open and calcium eneters the channels and that gets vesicles to travel to the presynaptic membrane and to fuse with it and release their neurotransmitters stored in the vescicles
Nt travel across the synaptic cleft and bind to chemically gated channels on the post synaptic membrane and these chemically gated channels have receptors where the nt can bind
• That causes then movement of sodium potassium ions and lead to a graded potential which can the either cause an ap or not
• Get rid of neurotransmitters by either diffusing away and getting taken up by the blood or they can get taken back up into presynaptic area/ terminals or enzymes can split them up making them inactive

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42
Q

what is the refractory period

A

• Refractory period = while Na+ channels are open there can be no further AP, even if another stimulus occurs (absolute refractory period); during repolarisation, a strong stimulus can trigger another AP (relative refractory period)

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43
Q

what is a neurotransmitter

A

chemicals that get released into the synaptic cleft due to an AP; they bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and trigger a graded potential

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44
Q

ways impulse can travel along an impulse

A
  • Continuous conduction = APs passing along the axolemma, i.e. cause depolarisation of a neighbouring area, etc.
  • Saltatory conduction = APs can travel along a myelinated axon (insulation) and only trigger the next AP at the gaps (nodes of Ranvier)
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45
Q

types of neurotransmitters

A

Acetylcholine (Ach) – can be both, very common in CNS and PNS
Noradrenaline – can be both, also in CNS and PNS
Dopamine – both, substantia nigra and other areas of CNS (“feel good” neurotransmitter
Serotonin – inhibitory, CNS (plays a role in mood, appetite, sleep)
GABA – main inhibitory, in CNS
Glutamate – main excitatory, in CNS

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46
Q

does continuous or saltatory conduction take longer

A

continuous

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47
Q

t or f

graded potential gets stronger further away from the stimulus

A

false]it gets weaker

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48
Q

look at brain diagram

A

diagram

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49
Q

what are the major brain structures

A 
•	Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres)
•	Diencephalon
•	Cerebellum
•	Brain stem
	Midbrain
	Pons
	Medulla oblongata
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50
Q

gyrus?

A

Ridges of tissue, mainly nerve cell bodies

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51
Q

Sulcus?

A

grooves in between the gyri

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52
Q

Lobe

A

areas separated by major sulci, often coincides with specific functions

53
Q

looking at the brain laterally what can be seen

A

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe, transverse cerebral fissure, cerebellum, brain stem

54
Q

what is a longtudinal fissure

A

split between 2 hemispheres

55
Q

what are the different suculus and gyruses

A

look at diagram

precentral gyrus
central suculus
postcentral gyrus
lateral suculus

56
Q

What is the reason for having a very convoluted brain, i.e. many sulci and gyri?

A

Larger surface area means a greater volume of grey matter, which in the cerebrum consists of
billions of interneurons.

57
Q

Describe the distribution of white and grey matter in the different brain areas, including the
spinal cord. What do they represent?

A

Cerebrum: grey matter on the outside (cortex), white matter more internal (tracts connecting
different brain areas)
Midbrain, pons and medulla: Mostly white matter (various tracts, e.g. pyramidal tracts) with some
nuclei (grey matter)
Spinal cord: “Butterfly” structure of grey matter in the centre with anterior (motor neuron cell
bodies) and posterior horns (sensory neuron cell bodies) and interneurons; white matter around
(motor and sensory tracts)

58
Q

. What are the layers of the meninges?

A

Dura mater = periosteal and meningeal layer, contains venous sinuses
(Underneath dura is subdural space)

Arachnoid = very fine connective tissue with fibres anchoring to pia mater
(Space between is called subarachnoid space- lost of large blood vessels in that area particularly arteries)

Pia mater = follows all the gyri into sulci

  • Csf floats below arachnoid and surrounds the whole brain
  • Csf can actually be extracted from spinal canal for testing
59
Q

What are the subdural and subarachnoid spaces?

A

Subdural space = between dura and arachnoid, filled with fluid

Subarachnoid space = between arachnoid and pia, contains larger arteries and veins

60
Q

important areas of cerebral hemisphere

A 
Primary motor cortex
(precentral gyrus)
Primary sensory cortex
(postcentral gyrus)
Primary visual cortex
Broca’s area
Wernicke’s area
Prefrontal cortex
Basal nuclei
Corpus callosum
61
Q

function of primary motor cortex/ precentral gyrus

A

precentral gyrus; large motor neurons (pyramidal cells); voluntary muscle movement → motor homunculus

62
Q

Primary sensory cortex

(postcentral gyrus) function

A

postcentral gyrus; receive information from somatic receptors in the skin and proprioceptors → somatosensory homunculus

63
Q

Primary visual cortex function

A

occipital lobe; interprets visual stimuli

64
Q

Broca’s area function

A

Motor speech area, directs muscles that are
involved in speaking, also active when we think
about what we want to say

= inferior and anterior to premotor cortex; motor speech area. Often affected in stroke. If damages person can understand but can not speak themselves

65
Q

Wernicke’s area

function

A

in temporal lobe; understanding written and spoken language. If damaged ppl can talk but don’t really make sense and often cant read as well

66
Q

Prefrontal cortex function

A

= in frontal lobe; most complex region → intellect, personality, working memory, abstract thinking

67
Q

Basal nuclei

function

A

Grey matter deep within cerebrum; involved in
motor function in coordination with substantia nigra
and cerebellum

68
Q

Corpus callosum function

A

White matter; tracts connecting both hemispheres

69
Q

important areas of diencephalon

A

Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland

70
Q

important areas of brain stem

A

Midbrain with
substantia nigra

Pons

Medulla oblongata and
pyramids

71
Q

important areas of cerebellum

A

Arbor vitae

Peduncles

72
Q

impotant ventricles of brain

A

lateral, third, forth

73
Q

function of thalamus

A

Relay station for all information coming into the

cortex; sorted, edited and integrated

74
Q

function of hypothalamus

A

Regulates homeostasis (temp, sleep, food, etc.)

75
Q

function of piuitary gland

A

Releases hormones to control endocrine system

76
Q

function of pineal gland

A

Secretes melatonin which induces sleep

77
Q

function of midbrain with substantia nigra

A

White matter (pyramidal tracts) and some nuclei,
e.g. substantia nigra; involved in reflexes (startle
and visual) and RAS; substantia nigra produces
dopamine; exit point of cranial nerves II, III, IV

ps Note: RAS = reticular activation system

78
Q

pons function

A

White matter, some nuclei, respiratory control, exit

point of cranial nerves

79
Q

what activates reticular activation system

A

Increasing the amount of sensory input will activate the RAS (reticular activation system). The
more different stimuli that will be processed in various brain regions, the more effective this is.
Here you have skin sensation from the open window (wind and cold), auditory stimuli (music) and
activated taste receptors (cold water).
However, sleep can override the RAS, particularly if you are sleep deprived, so this is not always
working.

80
Q

medulla oblongata and pyramids function

A

Top part of spinal cord; white matter (pyramidal
tracts in the pyramids); nuclei that are part of RAS;
cardiovascular and respiratory control; vomiting
and swallowing centre; sneeze and cough
reflexes; exit point of cranial nerves

81
Q

abor vitae function

A

Distinctive pattern of grey and white matter;
cerebellum fine tunes motor function together with
basal nuclei and substantia nigra; also makes
“blueprints” for movement patterns

82
Q

peduncles function

A

Sensory and motor fibres; unlike in the cerebral

cortex, they don’t cross over

83
Q

brain ventricles function

A

Produce and store CSF
• 3 and 4th are connected, and central canal reaches all the way down the spinal cord
• Openings where csf gets into meninges

84
Q

Explain how cerebrospinal fluid is formed and describe its movement.

A

Made by filtration in choroid plexuses in the ventricles; circulates through ventricles and in
subarachnoid space; lateral ventricles → third ventricle → fourth ventricle → through apertures
into subarachnoid space and also into central canal along the spinal cord

85
Q

WHERE ARE THESE STRUCTURES ON A DIAGRAM of brain

A
  • pre- and postcentral gyri
  • Different lobes
  • Basal nuclei
  • Thalamus, hypothalamus
  • Pituitary and pineal glands
  • Midbrain (superior and inferior colliculi), pons, medulla
  • Cerebellum, arbor vitae
  • Ventricles
  • Corpus callosum
  • Cranial nerves I and II
86
Q

LIMBIC SYSTEM location and FUNCTION

A

Various brain parts are involved, especially deep cerebral areas and parts of the diencephalon,
e.g. hippocampus, amygdala and other nuclei. This functional system regulates emotional
behaviour, such as reaction to stress or threats, aggression, etc. It is closely linked to the
olfactory (smell) areas.

i

87
Q

RETICULAR ACTIVATION SYSTEM FUNCTION

A

responsible for ALERTNESS AND WAKEFULNESS
• The more inpulses and stimuli you have to more this will be activated
• Some of the stimuli are visual, auditory, tough temperature

88
Q

list sleep stages

A

5 stages
• REM sleep- rapid eye movement sleep, stage where brain is incredibly active, often dream, eyes move rapidly but brain is actually paralyzed

  • Cycle every 90 min, from REM to deep sleep stages back up to REM the further we progress in the night the less deep we go. In the end we just go down to stage 2
  • The deep sleep stages 3 and 4 are when the long term consolidation of facts happen and higher up in rem is when the memory consolidation of physical skills happen

breif:
REM sleep = rapid eye movement, often coincides with dreaming, high brain activity and muscles
paralysed
Non-REM stages 3 and 4 are deep sleep, showing delta waves

89
Q

STRUCTURE OF MULTIPOLAR NEURON DRAW

A

MULTIPOLAR NEURON DRAW

90
Q

ecg function

A

electric activity of the brain has four distinct patterns (= waves)

91
Q

ecg function

A

electric activity of the brain has four distinct patterns (= waves)
• Brain electric activity can be measured by electrodes
• Encaphiliac electrogram’

92
Q

.Name three factors that can enhance transfer of information from short-term into long-term
memory.

A

Practice and rehearsing
Being excited about the new information/task and having positive feelings
Being able to associate new information with previously learned facts and skills
Sleep enhances memory consolidation

93
Q

how are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft?

A

They can be pumped back into presynaptic terminals (e.g. serotonin), broken down by enzymes
(e.g. Ach) or diffuse away

94
Q

Describe the release and action of neurotransmitters.

A

Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles in the axon terminals. Ca2+ entering the axon due to an
AP causes the vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic cell membrane and release them into the
synaptic cleft.
They diffuse across and bind to receptors at the postsynaptic cell membrane. This triggers a
graded potential which can either lead to or prevent an AP.

95
Q

The presence of what ion inside the cell causes the synaptic vesicles to fuse with the
membrane?

A

Ca2+

96
Q

What channels in the presynaptic neuron open up in response to an action potential?

A

Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels

97
Q

What happens to the membrane potential during the repolarisation phase of the action
potential, and what causes this change?

A

The membrane potential returns back to the resting membrane charge of -70mV. This is due to
the opening of voltage-gated K+ channels, which leads to K+ leaving the cell. At the same time,
Na+ channels close.
Need to know: An AP is caused by changes to the electric charge of the cell membrane of the
neuron. Resting membrane potential is -70mV (caused by K+
leaking out of the cell and the work
of the Na+
/K+ pump that maintains more Na+ outside and more K+
inside the cell). Opening of Na+
channels causes Na+
influx into the cell = depolarisation up to +30mV and then opening of K+
channels that causes K+
leaving the cell (repolarisation). The depolarisation and repolarisation is
the AP.

98
Q

what are the brain waves that can be detected by ecg

A
  • Alpha waves- eyes closed relaxed
  • Beta- when alert

theta waves- common in children

  • Delta- when asleep
  • Measured in hertz, how many peaks in one second
99
Q

define transduction

A

the stimulus energy gets converted into a graded potential.

100
Q

Describe the pathway for a sensory (afferent) stimulus from the receptor to the primary
sensory cortex

A

First order neuron: Receptor = mechano-, thermo-, photo-, chemoreceptors or nociceptor →
distal branch of sensory neuron via peripheral and then spinal nerve (cell body is in dorsal root
ganglion) → proximal branch of neuron via dorsal root into dorsal horn
Second order neuron: Interneuron in dorsal horn → crosses over to the opposite side and axon
goes all the way to thalamus
Third order neuron: Cell body in thalamus → primary sensory cortex and other higher centres
(photoreceptor would send information to primary visual centre)

101
Q

. Describe the motor (efferent) pathway from the primary motor cortex to a muscle fibre

A

Upper motor neuron: Cell bodies in primary motor area (pyramid cells) → most axons cross over
to opposite side in medulla and go down spinal cord
Lower motor neuron: Cell body ventral horn → ventral root into spinal nerve → peripheral nerve
(and often via a plexus) → muscle fibre

102
Q

typical ascending tract function

A 
Sensory, i.e. pressure, touch,
temperature, pain, etc.
Afferent, i.e. transmitting
stimuli from the periphery and
internal organs to the CNS
103
Q

typical ascending tract number of neurons

A

Three (first, second and third

order)

104
Q

typical ascending tract origin

A

Receptors (distal branch of
first order neuron, cell body in
dorsal root ganglion) on body
surface, muscles or in organs

105
Q

typical ascending tract termination

A

Primary sensory cortex, some

in cerebellum

106
Q

typical ascending tract, where does it cross over (decussate)?

A

Spinal level, i.e. same level
where first order neuron
enters the spinal cord

107
Q

typical ascending tract examples of tracts

A

Spinothalamic,

spinocerebellar

108
Q

typical decending tract function

A 
Motor, both skeletal and smooth
muscle fibres
Efferent, i.e. sending impulses
from CNS to skeletal muscles,
smooth muscles in organs and
blood vessels
109
Q

typical decending tract number of neurons

A

Two (upper and lower)

110
Q

typical decending tract origin

A

Primary motor cortex in precentral gyrus, basal nuclei and

cerebellum

111
Q

typical decending tract termination

A

Neuromuscular junction or
synapses on smooth muscle
fibres

112
Q

typical decending tract, where does it cross over?

A

In medulla, but some tracts

don’t cross over

113
Q

typical decending tract examples of tracts

A

Pyramidal, extrapyramidal

114
Q

nerve function

A
  • Are a bundle of axons
  • PNS (CNS has tracts)
  • Cranial or spinal
  • Most are Mixed, carryingsensory (afferent) or motor (efferent)
  • Innervate skin and muscles = somatic nerves or internal organs = visceral
  • Cell bodies of sensory neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia
  • Cell bodies of motor neurons are in the CNS, apart from autonomic efferent fibres (will discuss next week)
115
Q

What types of receptors do you know?

A

• Types
 Mechano → touch, pressure (including baroreceptors that measure BP), vibration, stretch
 Thermo → temperature changes
 Photo → respond to light (retina in the eye)
 Chemo → blood chemistry (pH), taste, smell
 Nociceptors → pain
 Exteroceptors → sensations from the outside environment can be combined eg. Externoreceptor that’s also a mechanoreceptor
 Interoceptors → visceroceptors in organs and blood vessels can be combined too
 Proprioceptors → muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints also can be combined
• Types
 Non-encapsulated → free nerve endings, stimulus transmitted via C fibres; temperature, pressure, pain (also A fibres) , proprioception; e.g. Merkel cells in skin, hair follicles
 Encapsulated → terminals of sensory fibres are in a connective tissue capsule; mainly mechanoreceptors; e.g. muscle spindle, Meissner corpuscle in skin
 Special senses → complex sensory organs composed of different receptors, e.g. eye, ear, smell, taste

116
Q

anatomy of the spinal cord/ nerves

A
  • 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 4-5 sacral vertebrae
  • Spinal nerves exit below the vertebrae
  • All exit just junder the vertebrae from C2 onwards
  • C1 spinal nerves exit above
  • In cervical and thoracic area level of spinal cord is pretty much the level of the adjacent vertebrae ( where its running through that vertebrae)
  • exit is almost horizontal, but the further down you go the more of an angle it is and the longer the nerves get ( as spinal cord is shorter than the veretebral colum)
  • 31 pairs of spinal nerves
117
Q

anatomy of spine ( cross section )

A
  • Butterfly shape is grey matter surrounded by white matter
  • Tracts are in white matter
  • Cell bodies in grey matter
  • Meninges visabe above white matter. Dura outside arachnoid and pia innermost
  • Once we leave our vertebrae though the intervertebral foramen past we are in the PNS
  • Ganglion bunch of cell bodies in PNS
  • Subarachnoid space and central canal would have CSF
  • Dorsal area/horns/back is sensory
  • Ventral/horns frontal area is motor
  • Can see epidural and subdural space
  • Epidural- above dura
  • Subdural space- have pierced the dura

VIEW DIAGRAM

118
Q

DIFFERENCE BETEEN AFFERENT AND EFFERENT

A

afferent- ascending towards brain

efferent- decending away from brain

119
Q

Definition pain, tolerance and threshold

A

pain- highly unpleasant physical sensation caused by illness or injury

Threshold = the intensity of a stimulus that will be perceived as pain (not just pressure or
temperature). This is the same for every person

Tolerance = how pain is interpreted, perceived and tolerated. This varies from person to person and also
in different situations.

120
Q

What is a spinal nerve and what is its function (think of the types of axons it contains)? What does it become?

A

…

121
Q 
List the main influences of the ANS on the
•	heart
•	lungs
•	pupils
•	digestion
•	urinary output
•	blood vessels (arterioles)
•	sweat glands
•	metabolism
A

SYMPATHETIC
- INCREASE METABOLISM, MENTAL ALETNESS, RESPIRATION AND SILATE AIRWAYS, HEARTRATE AND BP

-DECREASE DIGESTION AND URINE OUTPUT, ACTIVATE SWEATGLANDS AND CONTROL BLOOD VESSLES

PARASYMPATHETIC

  • decrease metabolism, heartrate and bp
  • increase salivary and digestive, gut motility and blood flow, urine output and defectation

-constrict airways

122
Q

What is the difference between a sensory receptor and a receptor for a neurotransmitter

A

…

123
Q

what are the brains asssociation areas

A

areas that interpret various stimuli from all senses; compare to previous experiences; assist with motor response to those stimuli; evaluate emotional reactions to stimuli (especially smell)

124
Q

what does csf do

A
  • Brain floats in it → reduces weight and cushions
  • Made by filtration in choroid plexuses in the ventricles
  • Composition similar to plasma, but has less protein, Ca2+ and K+; more Na+, Cl- and H+
  • About 150mL, replaced every 8h, 500mL produced daily
  • Circulates through ventricles and in subarachnoid space
  • Exchanges between CSF and ECF of brain tissue regulate both re fluid and electrolyte content
125
Q

special brain functions

A
  • Limbic system – emotional regulation
  • Reticular activation system (RAS) – alertness and wakefulness
  • Memory – formation and storage, long term and short term (= working) memory
  • EEG – electric activity of the brain has four distinct patterns (= waves)
  • Sleep – REM (= rapid eye movement) and non-REM stages
126
Q

how does memory formation occur

A
  • Just know we start of with short term some of which can be turned into long term memory
  • Factors can increase liklihood we can change from short term to long term ( rehersal, excitement, associating new data with stored data)
  • Sleep also importanat for memory consolidated
  • Declaritive memories- new facts normally get consolidated in deep sleep phases, procedural memorie- new motor skills cosolidated in REM sleep, emotional memory often linked to smell and music
127
Q

types of neuron fibres

A
  • Diameter and thickness determines speed of impulse
  • Group A = thick, myelinated, very fast (mainly somatic sensory and motor)
  • Group B = smaller diameter, myelinated, slower than A fibres (mainly visceral somatic, ANS, some skin receptors)
  • Group C = small diameter, non-myelinated, slow conduction of impulse (mainly visceral somatic, ANS, some skin receptors)
128
Q

structure of nerve

A
  • Structrure of nrve
  • Looks similar to muscle
  • Individual axons (nerve fibres)
  • Fibres surrounded by endoneurium
  • Several fibres make a fascicle surrounded by perineurium
  • Several fascicles together with some blood vessels are surrounded by epineurium make up the nerve

semester 2 nursing (5 decks)

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