NSC 101 REVIEWER Flashcards
geological processes that occur beneath the surface of the earth, associated with energy originating in the interior of the solid earth
endogenic processes
internal structure of earth: thinnest layer, composed of solid rocks
crust
three main sources of heat
planet creation, frictional heating, heat from the decay of radioactive elements
internal structure of earth: thickest layer, mostly solid
mantle
internal structure of earth: innermost layer, composed of iron and nickel
core
2 types of crust: older, less dense
continental crust
2 types of crust: younger, denser
oceanic crust
2 types of mantle
upper and lower
2 types of core: liquid layer
outer core
2 types of core: solid ball of metal
inner core
made up of crust and the uppermost part of the mantle
lithosphere
partially molten layer of the mantle that lies below the lithosphere, responsible for lithospheric plates
mantle
geological process by which magma forms and intrudes into the Earth’s crust often resulting in the formation of igneous rocks
magmatism
processes that lead to melting of rocks
decompression melting, addition of volatiles, heat transfer
a molten rock material found beneath the earth’s surface
magma
eruption of molten rock called magma onto earth’s surface through a vent, driving force is the plate tectonic motion
volcanism
visible manifestation of the process of rock formation
volcano
funnel shaped depression where material are ejected from a volcano
crater
a process which rocks change in shape, size, loc, tilt, and break due to squeezing, stretching, or shearing
deformation
a force applied per unit
stress
types of differential stress: forces are directed towards each other but not along the same axis, causing masses of rock to slip
shear stress
types of differential stress: tensional stress
force is directed away from each other, stretching of rocks causes elongation
types of differential stress: force is directed towards each other, squeezing of rocks causes shortening
compressional stress
rock formations that result from the deformation of earth’s crust due to tectonic forces
folds
types of folds: fold bends downward, with the youngest rock layers at the center and the older rock layers on the outside
syncline
types of folds: fold arches upward, with the oldest rock laters at the center and the younger rock layers on the outside
anticline
types of folds: a fold in which the rock layers are tilted in one direction, creating a step-like formation
monocline
types of folds: one limb is tilted beyond the vertical, resulting in the older rock layers being on top of the younger rock layers
overturned
process that changes pre-existing rocks into a new form due to increase in temp, pressure, and chemically active fluids. changes include formation of new minerals, increase in grain size, and modification of texture
metamorphism
Essence in learning about endogenic processes
understanding geological history, managing natural resources, predicting natural hazards, enhancing infrastructure
process by which rocks, solid, and minerals are broken down into smaller pieces and transformed over time
weathering
a geological process by which sediments, soil, and rocks are added to a landform or landmass
deposition
wearing away and removal of rock and soil by natural agents to form new landforms
erosion and transport
physical breakdown of rocks and minerals without any change to their chemical composition
mechanical weathering
breakdown of rocks and minerals through chemical reactions
chemical weathering
outer layers of rock are stripped from the surface due to changes in temp and pressure
exfoliation
water enters cracks and crevices in rocks and freezes, causing water to expand and cracks widen, causing the rock to break apart
frost wedging
expand when heated and contract when cooled. can cause the rock to stress, leading to cracks
thermal expansion
types of mechanical weathering: caused by the growth of salt crystals within the pore spaces of rocks
salt wedging
types of mechanical weathering: plant roots grow into cracks and crevices in rocks. as they grow, they exert pressure on the rocks making it break
root wedging
types of mechanical weathering: when rocks collide against each other while transported by water, wind, etc.
abraison
occurs when plant roots grow into cracks and crevices in rocks.
root wedging
when rocks are heated and cooled repeatedly due to changes in temperature.
thermal expansion
caused by growth of salt crystals within the pore spaces of rocks
salt wedging
types of chemical weathering: when minerals dissolve in water or acid
dissolution
types of chemical weathering: when minerals react with water to form new minerals
hydrolysis
types of chemical weathering: when minerals react with oxygen in the air
oxidation
types of chemical weathering: caused by action of plants, animals, and microorganisms
biological weathering
types of chemical weathering: when minerals absorb water molecules into their crystal structure
hydration
types of chemical weathering: when rocks collide against each other while they are transported by water, wind, etc.
carbonation
the same natural laws and processes that operate in the present have always operated in the past, understands the earth’s past by studying the processes that shape it today
uniformitarianism
who made uniformitarianism
James Hutton
study of rock layers and their relationship to one another, analysis and interpretation of physical and chemical properties of rocks in order to reconstruct the geologic history of an area
stratigraphy
gap or break in the geological record where rock layers are missing dur to erosion, non-deposition, or deromation, provides info about geological history
unconformity
provides an actual age or range of ages for rocks and fossils
absolute dating
determining the relative order of past events without necessarily determining their absolute age, makes use of strata or stratum, observes the steno’s laws of stratigraphy by nicolas steno
relative dating
steno’s laws of stratigraphy: when the lower stratum was being formed, non of the upper strata existed. if unidisturbed, oldest rock is at the bottom
law of superposition
steno’s laws of stratigraphy: sedimentary rocks are always deposited in horizontal layers
law of original horizontality
steno’s laws of stratigraphy: the layers of rock are continuous until they encounter other solid bodies that block their deposition or until they are acted upon by agents after the deposition
law of lateral continuity
steno’s laws of stratigraphy: any rock, fault, or structure that cuts another rock or structure is younger than the rock or structure it cuts
law of cross cutting relationships
absolute dating: an unstable radioactive isotope
parent isotope
absolute dating: stable isotope produced by radioactive decay
daughter isotope
absolute dating: time needed for half of a sample of a radioactive substance to undergo radioactive decay
half life
a system of chronological measurement that relates geological strata to time
geologic time scale
time spans: 10,000 to 2,000,000
age
time spans: 2 million - 5 million
epoch
time spans: 10 million to 900 million years
period
time spans: 100 million to 1billion years
era
time spans: 1 billion years to 10 billion years
Eon
subdivision of precambrian: from the greek word hades which means underworld, reflects the extremely harsh conditions on earth, first soldi crust
hadean
subdivision of precambrian: plate tectonics allowed crustal building and the formation of volcanic belts and sedimentary basins, fossil remains of microscopic algae and bacteria
archean
subdivision of precambrian: rifting of the continental crust and subsequent filling with sedimentary and volcanic rocks
proterozoic
eon of visible life
phanerozoic eon
phanerozoic eon: beginning of life by the sudden complex organisms, pangea continent
paleozoic era
paleozoic era: had the age of fishes and large areas of swamps flourished which would become the coal deposits
devonian period and carboniferous period
phanerozoic eon: age of the dinasaurs, mass extinction
mesozoic era
phanerozoic eon: age of recent life or mammals, continents were fully separated, prehistoric humans began to emerge
cenozoic era
the epoch, era, and eon we are now living in
holocene epoch, quaternary period of the cenozoic era, of the phanerozoic eon
a naturally occurring event of phenomenon, may escalate into a natural disaster
natural hazard
such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
geological or geophysical hazards
ways of decreasing the damages that would be involved
hazard mitigation
this act transforms the Philippines’ disaster management system from disaster relief and response towards risk reduction
RA No. 10121 Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010
hazards by earthquakes: deformation on the ground that marks the intersection with the earth’s surface
ground rapture
hazards by earthquakes: phenomenon where sediments behave like liquid similar to quicksand
liquefaction
hazards by earthquakes: disruptive up, down and sideways vibration of the ground during an earthquake
ground shaking
hazards by earthquakes: downward slope movement of rocks
earthquake induced landslide
hazards by earthquakes: series of waves caused by earthquake under the sea
tsunami
scale to use to measure the energy released at the source of the earthquake (magnitude)
ritcher’s magnitude scale
intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake
mercallis’s intensity scale
consistent reversal of wind pattern affecting a large area over a period of several months
monsoon
monsoon from november to feb
amhian
monsoon from may to oct
habagat
rotating clumn of air
tornado
rapid spiraling storms, low-pressure center, intensely strong winds
storm system
typhoons in tropical region
tropical cyclones
tornado in northwest pacific
typhoons
tornados in atlantic and northeast region
hurricanes
land and seas bordering the shoreline
coastal areas
3 things that cause coastal hazards
waves, tides, and coastal erosion
high and low ___ are cause by the moon
tides
sediments are submerged under water and eventually replaced back to its original location
submersion
the process of removing sediment
erosion
from the hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament
genesis
hindu text, describes the universe as an infinitely oscillating place, in which a cosmic egg will expand and collapse again
rigveda or brahmanda
the universe is made of tiny particles called atom
atomic universe by leucippus and democritus
cosmogony was more focused on the role of mind and intellect, known as “nuos”. everything is made of infinitely indivisible particles called “nuos” or “nuos matter”
primordial universe by anaxagoras
the earth is the center
geocentrism by aristotle and ptolemy
universe as static, steadily stable, and infinite
newtonian model
the sun is the center
heliocentrism by nicolas copernicus
universe is filed with swirling vortices of matter
cartesian vortex by rene descartes
universe as static, dynamically stable
einstein’s model
emergence of the universe from an extremely high temperature called a singularity 13.8 billion years ago
big bang
the universe expanded but did not change density; matter was inserted as it grew
steady state theory
universe expands and then contracts due to the pull of its gravity; big bang and big crunch
oscillating universe by einstein
incorporates a short, early period of exponential cosmic inflation to solve the horizon and flatness of the standard big bang theory
inflationary model
several or infinite universes called bubbles
multiverse
a rouge star passed close to the sun which fragmented into planets. explains why planets revolve in the same direction and why inner planets are denser than outer planets
encounter hypothesis
a whole solar system starts as a large cloud gas that contracts under self gravity
nebular hypothesis
a dense interstellar cloud produces a cluster of stars
protoplanet hypothesis
planets in this zone are neither too hot nor cold, just the right conditions for life
goldilocks zone
small solid objects that form in the early stages of the solar systems and are the building blocks of planets
planetisimals
a requirement for life, from volcanisms and icy meteors
liquid water
a requirement for life, internal heating from the core and external heating from the sun
heat source
solid earth, naturally occuring rocks, contains geographic landforms
geosphere
a requirement for life, protects the earth from too much heat
atmosphere
totality of the earth’s water
hydrosphere
a mixture of all gasses, the most abundant is nitrogen at 78%
atmosphere
contains all life forms on earth
biosphere
lowest layer of the atmosphere, contains most of the mass, and is where weather occurs
troposphere
contains the ozone layer which absorbs and scatters UV radiation
stratosphere
naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, with a definite chemical composition and an ordered internal structure
minerals
where most meteoroids burns up upon entering the atmosphere
mesosphere
thin air but absorbs high energy, uV rays, and contains the aurora borealis
thermosphere
extends into space, outermost layer
exosphere
not made from living organisms
inorganic
form through natural geological processes
naturally occurring
are solid at room temperature
solid
a specific repeating arrangement of atoms
ordered internal structure
each mineral has a specific chemical formula
definite chemical composition
major rock forming minerals, most abundant group in the earth’s crush, 90%
silicates
precipitate out of water near earth’s surface
sulfates
presence of carbonic ion, bonded to calcium or magnesium
carbonates
metal cations bonded to oxygen ions
oxides
common ore minerals, metal forms a high proportion of them
sulfides
composed of halogen elements with metals and forms halite rocks
halides
physical properties of minerals: arrangement of atoms
shape/crystal form
consists of single metals like copper and gold
native metals
physical properties of minerals: tendency to break
cleavage
physical properties of minerals: separation in the rock
fracture
physical properties of minerals: shininess
luster
physical properties of minerals: reflected wavelengths of light
color
physical properties of minerals: color of powder
streak
physical properties of minerals: weight or specific gravity
density
physical properties of minerals: resistance to scratching or abraision
hardness
physical properties of minerals: naturally occurring coherent aggregate of minerals
rocks
from solidified molten rock material
igneous
aka volcanic rocks, formed outside the volcano
extrusive
aka plutonic rock, formed inside voclano
intrusive
forms from sediments
sedimentary
sediments are deeply buried
compaction
new minerals stick the grains together
cementation
sediments under pressure expel connate fluids gradually becoming a solid rock
lithification
form from pre existing rocks
clastic
lithify from the remains of organisms, both plants and animals
organic
dissolved minerals precipitate and lithify, present in caves
chemical
formation of distinct sedimentary layers
bedding
pre-existing or parent rocks altered by heat and pressure
metamorphic
platy surfaces or wavy alignments of light and dark minerals
foliated metamorphic
absence of platy surfaces or wavy alignments of light and dark minerals
non-foliated metamorphic
