Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

NS 1400 > NS 1400 Exam 3 > Flashcards

NS 1400 Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

how do cancer cells form?

A

mutations arise due to damaged DNA. Accumulation of mutations can cause normal cells to turn into cancerous cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

what are the 4 ways that cancer cells differ to normal cells?

A
  1. grow in absence of signals telling them to die
  2. ignore signals telling them to stop dividing
  3. spread to other parts of the body
  4. divert blood vessels to grow towards tumors supplying tumors with oxygen and nutrient/remove waste
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

true or false, cancer is the leading cause of death in the US

A

false, second leading cause only behind heart disease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

what three factors cause cancer?

A
  1. environment
  2. behavior
  3. genetics
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

what are some examples of environmental factors that cause cancer?

A

radiation, chemical carcinogen exposure, exposure to sun UV

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

what are some examples of behavioral factors that cause cancer?

A

alcohol, tobacco, certain foods, exposure to sun UV

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

what category causes the smallest fraction of all cancers?

A

genetics

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

what is the overall trend with age and cancer?

A

incidence of cancer increased with age

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

what are two reasons why cancer increased with age?

A
  1. more time for image in our cells to build up so higher chance damage leads to cancer
  2. more exposure to behavioral and environmental factors that cause cancer
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

what is the general trend between sex and cancer mortality?

A

cancer mortality is generally higher for men than for women

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

how does cancer mortality vary with race?

A

African American men have the highest mortality rate while Asian/Pacific Islanders have the lowest

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

true or false, racial disparities continue to rise?

A

false, racial disparities are declining

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

what are the three most common cancers for men?

A

prostate, lung, colorectal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

what are the three most common cancers for women?

A

breast, lung, colorectal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

what is the general trend between geography and prevalence of cancer?

A

highest rates in mideast states and southern states

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

why do we focus on lung cancer?

A
  • one of the most preventable
  • public health success story
  • been declining since 1955
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

what are the two research problems in the Doll-Hill study?

A
  1. lung cancer is associated with many things such as smoking but also low education and location. The question is how do you know if its smoking or if its that people who smoke are more likely to be living in places where they are more likely to get lung cancer
  2. relationship between smoking and lung cancer is not instantaneous. Need to identify participants and control and follow them for many years
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

what is the research method used in the Doll-Hill study?

A

prospective cohort design: follows a group of individuals over time who are alike in many ways but differ by a key characteristic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

what was the research group used for the Doll-Hill study?

A

group of doctors

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

why were a group of doctors a good population to study?

A

many similarities such as same occupation, educated, similar incomes, similar background

also a medical register allowing researchers to track deaths

can isolate the key difference being tobacco use

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

what were the results of the Doll-Hill study?

A
  • non-smoking doctors die from lung cancer less than doctors that did smoke
  • amount of tobacco used predicts mortality rates
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

what are observational studies?

A

observe what occurs without intentional interference or intervention

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

what are the 4 types of observational studies?

A
  1. cross-sectional
  2. cohort (prospective)
  3. case-control (retrospective)
  4. ecologic
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

what are experimental studies?

A

observe what occurs in response to investigator-induced change in exposure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

what are the two types of experimental studies?

A
  1. randomized clinical trials
  2. community trials
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

what is a cross-sectional study?

A
  • observing what happens at one point in time
  • where an exposure and outcome are measured at the same time
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

what is a cohort study?

A

looking at those who are exposed and non-exposed and comparing them overtime
- when did they become diseased and for how long did they remain non-diseased
- what was the incidence rate for each group
- determine relative risk

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

what is relative risk?

A

statistic of being exposed and developing the disease vs not being exposed and developing the disease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

what is a case-control study?

A

compares those who have a disease or outcome with patients who do not and look back in time to compare how frequently the exposure to a risk factor is present in each group. measured using odds ratio

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

what is odds ratio?

A

measure of association between an exposure and an outcome

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

what is an ecological study?

A

an observational study that looks at a large group to get some kind of population data

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

true or false, lung caner is the leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide

A

true

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

what is the 5-year survival rate of lung cancer?

A

21%

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

what are the two types of cancer?

A
  1. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)
  2. small cell lung cancer (SCLC)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

what is the most common type of lung cancer making up 85%?

A

NSCLC

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

what are the three types of NSCLC?

A
  1. adenocarcinoma
  2. squamous cell carcinoma
  3. large cell carcinoma
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

what is SCLC almost exclusively associated with?

A

tobacco, smoking

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

which type of lung cancer has a worse prognosis?

A

SCLC with a 7% 5 year survival rate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

what are malignant tumors? give three characteristics?

A

cancer tumors

  1. can grow quickly and have irregular borders
  2. often invade surrounding tissue
  3. can spread through the body
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

what is metastasis?

A

when cancer cells spread throughout the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

what do normal cells do when they reach other cells?

A

stop growing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

what is the cell cycle?

A

steps that take place for the cell to faithfully replicate its genetic material and divide

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

what is the first major phase of the cell cycle?

A

interphase

44
Q

what are the three phases of interphase?

A
  1. G1 phase
  2. S phase
  3. G2 phase
45
Q

what happens in the G1 phase?

A

the cell grows, and copies organelles and other cell contents in preparation for DNA synthesis

46
Q

what happens in the S phase?

A

the cells makes a complete copy of their DNA

47
Q

what happens in the G2 phase?

A

cell grows more, makes proteins and prepares for mitosis

48
Q

what is the second major phase of the cell cycle?

A

mitosis (includes cytokinesis)

49
Q

what happens during mitosis?

A

the cell nucleus and cytoplasm divide to yield two identical cells

50
Q

what is the G0 phase?

A

when the cell cycle is no longer ongoing in a cell and it stays here until it dies

51
Q

what do checkpoints do in the cell cycle?

A

check for mutations or abnormalities

52
Q

what are the three checkpoints of the cell cycle?

A
  1. G1/S
  2. G2/M
  3. M/G1
53
Q

what is a gene?

A

a basic functional unit of heredity that are composed of coding and non-coding regions of DNA

54
Q

how do genes affect cancer?

A

they make proteins which have many biological roles such as cell growth, survival and motility

55
Q

what is lung cancer caused by?

A

deregulation of genes involved in cell growth, survival, and motility

56
Q

what are the two types of lung cancer genes?

A

oncogenes and tumor supressor genes (TSGs)

57
Q

what are oncogenes?

A

mutated version of normal genes that promote cell proliferation, motility, and survival

58
Q

what are tumor suppressor genes?

A

normal genes that inhibit cells proliferation, motility, and survival. Also includes cells that promote programmed cell death

59
Q

how does cancer result from mutations?

A
  1. gene mutation: alteration of gene sequence to yield mutant proteins
  2. gene amplification: normal sequence is repeated in the chromosome to yield excess protein
  3. gene translocation: movement of a genetic sequence from its normal chromosomal position to a new position to yield novel fusion protein
60
Q

how does cancer develop?

A
  1. damage to DNA
  2. transmission of DNA errors
  3. latency
  4. progression (depends on cancer hallmarks)
61
Q

what are cancer hallmarks?

A

newly formed biological characteristics of a cell that are associated with the number and types of mutations accumulated by a cell

62
Q

what are the 6 most common cancer hallmarks?

A
  1. growth factor independence
  2. insensitive to anti growth signals
  3. activating invasion and metastasis
  4. enabling replicative immortality
  5. inducing angiogenesis
  6. resisting cell death
63
Q

what is growth factor independence?

A

typically, synthesis and release of growth factors are tightly regulated to maintain normal cell growth and function but cancer cells achieve self sufficiency in growth factors.

  • Cancer cells make growth factors stimulate their own and neighboring receptors
  • alter the number, structure and function of growth factor receptors on their surface
  • deregulate downstream signaling pathways to permanently turn on growth
64
Q

what is insensitivity to anti-growth signals?

A

normally, anti-growth signals counteract the positively acting growth signals to promote cells into quiescence or by inducing terminal differentiation (coded by tumor suppressor genes)

  • cancer cells inhibit anti-growth signaling pathways by reducing receptor number and sensitivity to anti-growth signals. Also by enabling mutations to the tumor suppressor genes
65
Q

what is angiogenesis?

A

growth of new blood vessels

66
Q

what is angiogenesis controlled by?

A

balance between pro-angiogenic (positive) and anti-angiogenic (negative) signals

67
Q

what is induction of angiogenesis?

A

cancers ability to process depends on its ability to secure a blood supply. Cancer cells have angiogenic phenotype which promotes production of pro-angiogenic proteins and promotes decreased production of anti

68
Q

what is the avoidance of cell death?

A

loss of normal cell death pathway signaling through two ways

  1. cancer cells will ignore death signals sent though the immune system (extrinsic)
  2. cancer cells will reset the balance of intracellular pro- and anti-survival molecules within mitochondria (intrinsic)
69
Q

what is replicative senescence?

A

normal cells undergo a fixed number of cell divisions before they enter a state of permanent rest. Occurs because cells cannot replicate telomeres at ends of chromosomes because they get shorter with time

70
Q

what is cellular immortalization?

A

cancer cells can maintain the length of their telomeres with cell division

71
Q

what are the 6 steps of invasion?

A
  1. detachment of the tumor cell from its location site and neighboring cells
  2. enzymatic digestion of surrounding tissue
  3. migration to and penetration of blood or lymphatic vessels
  4. survival in the circulation until arrival at favorable secondary site
  5. attachment to blood vessel way and extravasation from vessel
  6. proliferation and invasion of its new location and recruitment of new blood supply
72
Q

what is invasion and metastasis?

A

cancer cells are able to alter the epithelial to mesenchymal transition

  • ability to transform from a differentiated to dynamic cell type
73
Q

what are the two new hallmarks of cancer?

A

reprogrammed energy metabolism and evasion of immune destruction

74
Q

what is reprogrammed energy metabolism?

A

cancer cells switch their metabolism to preferential use of glycolysis with the generation of lactate
- provides important substrates for cancer cell growth and division

75
Q

what is evasion of immune destruction?

A

cancer cells are less immunogenic and actively recruit immunosuppressive cells to their vicinity to evade immune surveillance

76
Q

what are the main types of cancer terminal by cell type origin?

A
  1. carcinoma
  2. sarcoma
  3. leukemia
  4. lymphoma
  5. gliomas
77
Q

where do carcinomas originate?

A

epithelial cells, skin or tissue that lines organs

  • 80-90% of all cancer
78
Q

where do sarcomas originate?

A

supporting or connective tissue

79
Q

where does leukemia originate?

A

stem cells of bone marrow

80
Q

where does lymphoma originate?

A

cells and tissues of the lymphatic system

81
Q

where do gliomas originate?

A

nervous tissue

82
Q

what makes up the upper respiratory system?

A

nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx

83
Q

what makes up the lower respiratory system?

A

larynx, trachea, bronchus, bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles

84
Q

what is the conducting zone of the lungs?

A
  • from the nasal cavity to bronchi and bronchioles
  • passageways that carry gas in and out of the lungs
85
Q

what is the respiratory zone of the lungs?

A
  • respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli
  • site of gas exchange
86
Q

what are the respiratory muscles?

A

diaphragm

87
Q

what cell types are in large airways?

A
  • ciliated cells
  • basal stem cells
  • secretory stem cells
  • neuroendocrine cell
  • goblet cell
88
Q

what cell types are in alveoli?

A
  • alveolar type 1 cell
  • alveolar type 2 stem cell
  • activated alveolar macrophages
  • activated fibroblasts
89
Q

what are the origins of SCLC and NSCLC?

A
  • squamous cell carcinoma: basal cell
  • large cell carcinoma: neuroendocrine cell
  • adenocarcinoma: alveolar type 2 cell
  • SCLC: neuroendocrine cell
90
Q

what are historical fearers of cancerous cells?

A
  • scant cytoplasm
  • ill-defined borders
  • granular chromatin
  • absent nuclei
  • high mitotic count
91
Q

inactivation of which two tumor suppressor genes is integral to the SCLC pathogenesis?

A

TP34 (codes for P35) and RB1(codes for RB)

92
Q

what do RB and P53 do?

A

play key tones in regulating cell cycle progression

  • RB is an indicator of S phase entry (inhibits DNA replications when here is abnormality?
  • P53 is integral to multiple cell cycle checkpoints and trimmest apoptosis in response to damage
93
Q

what are the respiratory symptoms of lung cancer?

A
  • cough and wheeze
  • dyspnea
  • hemoptysis (coughing blood)
94
Q

what are the radiological findings of lung cancer?

A
  • lung masses are typical and locally centered
  • thoracic lymph nodes are advanced
  • distant metastatic lesions present in 2/3 of patient
95
Q

what is the tumor-node metastasis (TNM)?

A

classification system reflecting disease progression

distinguished limited-stage from extensive-stage disease
- anatomic discrimination (T1-T4)
- lymph node involvement (N0-N3)
- distant spread (M0-M1)

96
Q

describe lung cancer stage 1?

A

limited stage
- restricted to one side
- primary lesion is less than 3 cm (T1A) or greater than 3cm (T1B)
- no lymph node involvement

97
Q

describe lung cancer stage 2?

A

limited stage
- restricted to one side
- primary lesion between 5-7cm or less than 5 cm with lymph node involvement (T2A)
- primary lesion is greater than 7cm without lump node involvement, 5-7 cm with lymph node involvement (T2B) or evidence of spread to adjacent tissue

98
Q

describe lung cancer stage 3?

A

locally advanced disease?
- cancer has spread beyond lymph nodes on both sides of the chest
- involvement of medially situated lymph nodes (T3A) versus those on the opposite side of the chest (T3B)

99
Q

describe lung cancer stage 4?

A

extensive stage disease
- cancer is accompanied by pleural effusion or distant metastasis
- fluid buildup in lungs
- distant lesions in brain, bone or liver

100
Q

how is early stage SCLC managed?

A

surgery or radiotherapy
- cisplatin-etoposide

101
Q

how is locally advance disease managed?

A

chemoradiotherapy
- PCI

102
Q

how is extensive metastatic disease managed?

A
  • chemoIO
  • immunotherapy
  • consolidative thoracic radiotherapy
103
Q

what is equity?

A

using different solutions to give people equal opportunities
- achieved when everyone has a fair and just opportunity to live the healthiest life possible
- when opportunity is no longer defined by identity

104
Q

how does equity differ from equality?

A

equality is simply treating everyone the same

105
Q
A

NS 1400 (3 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions