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AQA AS (A-level) Religious Studies > Normative Ethical Theories > Flashcards

Normative Ethical Theories Flashcards

1
Q

Explain the quote from Cicero (106-42 BCE) relating to natural moral law

A

’One law both everlasting and unchangeable will encompass all nations and for all times
- Describes NML
- One universal, absolute, timeless, eternal law that all people should follow, this is discoverable through human reason

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2
Q

Explain the quote from H L A Hart relating to NML

A

’There are certain principles of human conduct, awaiting discovery by human reason’
- We aren’t supposed to invent our own rules that suit us, we are discovering a universal, eternal law

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3
Q

Define ‘eudamonia’

A

State of supreme happiness

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4
Q

Name the scholar who proposed NML

A

St Thomas Aquinas

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5
Q

Name the two ancient philosophical influences on Aquinas

A
  1. Aristotle
  2. Stoicism
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6
Q

Explain the ancient philosophical influences of Aristotle on Aquinas in NML

A
  • Aristotle believed the universe and everything within it has a ‘telos’ (end or purpose)
  • The telos of humans is to achieve eudaemonia
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7
Q

Define ‘telos’

A

End or purpose

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8
Q

Explain the influence of Stoicism on Aquinas in NML

A
  • Stoicism viewed the world as an ordered place arranged by nature
  • Stoics believe we have a divine spark within us that enabled us to reason and understand the universe
  • Path to human happiness is to accept natural order of things and live in accordance to nature’s rules - you can know what God wants you to do by using reason to interpret world/nature
  • Stoics favoured rational over the use of emotion
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9
Q

Explain the 3 main impacts the ancient influences on Aquinas had in NML

A
  1. Telos - humans have an end/purpose and we should strive to fulfill it
  2. Reason - world is ordered and rational; we have to understand it with reason
  3. Nature - we have human nature, and it’s important what we do is natural
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10
Q

How does Aquinas propose we can achieve eudaemonia in NML

A

Following the 5 precepts

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11
Q

Aquinas argues we can find supreme happiness through the 5 precepts, however, he argues that complete happiness can only be found through ________

A

God

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12
Q

Explain what Aquinas means by beatific vision in NML

A

Eternal and direct visual perception of God, which is only accessible after death and leads to complete happiness

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13
Q

List the four tiers of law developed by Aquinas in NML

A
  1. Eternal law
  2. Divine law
  3. Natural law
  4. Human law
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14
Q

Explain eternal law in NML

A
  • Law as known by the mind of god - God’s knowledge of right and wrong
  • Beyond human comprehension
  • We have the ability to reason, so could imperfectly work out some of it’s application in human life through divine law
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15
Q

Explain divine law in NML

A

Revealed by God through scripture e.g., teachings such as the Ten Commandments

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16
Q

Explain natural law in NML

A
  • Moral thinking we are all able to do - ‘right reason in accordance with nature’
  • Includes a rational reflection on our human nature and considering how to ‘do good but avoid evil’ (believes this is our innate desire)
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17
Q

Explain human law in NML

A
  • Customs and practices of society devised by givenment
  • Ideally what we reason from natural law
  • It is only just and acceptable if based on divine and natural law
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18
Q

Explain why we’re unable to base laws of eternal law (NML)

A

We can’t know eternal law as it exceeds our understanding, we can only base of the laws we know: natural and divine law

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19
Q

Why do laws have to be derived from eternal laws (NML)?

A

Because, we need to discover what God wants us to do

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20
Q

Explain the quote from Aquinas relating to the four tiers of law in NML

A

’If they command unjust things, their subjects are not obliged to obey them’
- You only have to follow what society/government says if what they are saying is just, in accordance with natural and divine law

Example: same sex marriage is wrong because not in accordance with natural and divine law e.g., Leviticus ‘abomination’

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21
Q

State Aquinas’ synderesis principle in NML

A

‘Do good and avoid evil’

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22
Q

Define synderesis

A

Inborn knowledge of the primary principle for a moral action - the inner principle/sense directing people towards good and away from evil

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23
Q

Draw a simple diagram of what Aquinas’ synderesis principle in NML leads to

A

Synderesis principle ————> (leads to) primary precepts ————> (which results in) secondary precepts

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24
Q

What do the 5 primary precepts allow us to achieve in NML according to Aquinas?

A

Fulfilling our ‘telos’

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25
Q

List the 5 primary precepts proposed by Aquinas in NML

A
  1. Preservation of life
  2. Reproduction
  3. Education of children
  4. Ordering of society
  5. Worship of God
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26
Q

Explain the precept of preservation of life as proposed by Aquinas in NML

A
  • We’re to preserve life, both our own and others
  • It’s natural and reasonable for every person to be concerned with ‘preserving it’s own being and…preserving human life’
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27
Q

Explain the precept of reproduction as proposed by Aquinas in NML

A
  • It’s rational to ensure life counties and this is the telos of sexual intercourse
  • Consistent with evolution ‘survive and reproduce’
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28
Q

Explain the precept of education of children as proposed by Aquinas in NML

A

Humans are intellectual animals and it is natural for us to learn

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29
Q

Explain the precept of ordering of society as proposed by Aquinas in NML

A
  • We are social beings
  • Good to live in an ordered society where it’s possible to fulfil our telos
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30
Q

Explain the precept of worship of God as proposed by Aquinas in NML

A

To recognise God as the source of life and live in a way that pleases him

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31
Q

Explain the secondary precepts derived from preservation of life (NML)

A
  • Influences catholic teaching e.g., abortion and euthanasia
  • Expressed in divine la ‘Do not kill’ and human laws not to take life
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32
Q

Explain the secondary precepts derived from reproduction (NML)

A
  • Influences Catholic teachings on sex, contraception, and homosexuality
  • Seen in divine law as ‘be fruitful and multiply;
  • In the past, it was seen as a duty by society
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33
Q

Explain the secondary precepts derived from education of children (NML)

A
  • UN convention of the rights of the child affirms that every child has the right to an education
  • St Paul writes ‘bring yo your children in the training and instruction of the Lord’
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34
Q

Explain the secondary precepts derived from ordering of society (NML)

A

Every society has certain rules to follow its laws in place to regulate human behaviour

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35
Q

Explain the secondary precepts derived from worship of God (NML)

A
  • Christians pray, read scripture and attend church
  • Globally, billions of Christians worship God daily
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36
Q

List key evaluation point(s) for the primary precept of preservation of life as presented by Aquinas in NML

A

Euthanasia - preserve life at what cost?

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37
Q

List key evaluation point(s) for the primary precept of reproduction as presented by Aquinas in NML

A
  • Overpopulation in the modern word, so will reproduction have benefits, or will it encourage things like poverty and climate change?
  • Could homosexuality not be wrong as it is possible to reproduce through adoption
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38
Q

List key evaluation point(s) for the primary precept of education of children as presented by Aquinas in NML

A

Richard Dawkins says it is ‘child abuse’ to teach your child religion when there is no evidence for it

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39
Q

List key evaluation point(s) for the primary precept of ordering of society as presented by Aquinas in NML

A

Leads to the idea of why we end order - Aquinas says, to fulfil our purpose so we can fulfil our telos and protect life

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40
Q

List key evaluation point(s) for the primary precept of worship of God as presented by Aquinas in NML

A
  • Not everyone worships God, nor do animals, this precept is outdated, Dawkins argues this isn’t instinctive
  • We have better scientific understanding of the world
  • Freud argues belief in God was due to neurosis/wish fulfillment (link this idea to RE)
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41
Q

Secondary precepts (NML)

A

Rules based on primary precepts

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42
Q

Real goods (NML)

A

Things that are good in accordance with natural law helping achieve ‘telos’ e.g., worshipping God

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43
Q

Apparent goods (NML)

A

Things that seem good but have negative consequences e.g., adultery

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44
Q

How did Aquinas argue we should determine whether something is an apparent or real good? (NML)

A

Through our reasoning

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45
Q

Interior acts (NML)

A

Intentions and choices that happens in the mind

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46
Q

Exterior acts (NML)

A

Physical actions done by a person

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47
Q

What were Aquinas’ 4 cardinal virtues necessary for? (NML)

A

Developing fundamental qualities for a good life

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48
Q

List Aquinas’ 4 cardinal virtues in NML

A
  1. Prudence
  2. Temperance
  3. Fortitude
  4. Justice
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49
Q

Explain the cardinal value of prudence in NML

A

Being practically wise or pragmatic

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50
Q

Explain the cardinal value of temperance in NML

A

Being moderate with what you do and consume

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51
Q

Explain the cardinal value of fortitude in NML

A

Face things in life with courage and bravery

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52
Q

Explain the cardinal value of justice in NML

A

Be fair and just

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53
Q

What do Aquinas’ 4 cardinal virtues allow in NML

A

Always work out the morally right answer and follow the primary precepts

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54
Q

Which sins lead people away from natural moral law?

A

The 7 deadly sins (or cardinal sins)

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55
Q

Which sins lead people away from natural moral law?

A

The 7 deadly sins (or cardinal sins)

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56
Q

Did Aquinas ever refer to DoDE in Summa Theologica?

A

No, he only described it as

57
Q

What was Aquinas’ main question in DoDE?

A

‘Is it lawful to kill a man in self defense?’

58
Q

What was the answer to Aquinas’ main question in DoDE?

A

‘Yes because it was not intentional, so it is morally acceptable’

59
Q

Explain the DoDE

A

Sometimes, we have to do a good thing even if it leads to a potentially negative consequence. Actions have two effects…
• Intentional and unintentional - as long as your intention and action is good, it’s morally acceptable no matter the consequence e.g., abortion to save mothers life is a good intention, aborting the foetus is unintentional.
• It is never acceptable to do a bad action even if it leads to a good consequence e.g., stealing to survive if your poor
• However, it’s possible to do a good action even if it may lead to a bad consequence e.g., killing a man in self defence

60
Q

In order for an event to be classed as the DoDE, which four conditions must it satisfy?

A
  1. Nature of the act - must be morally good
  2. The means-end - bad effect must not be how the good outcome is achieved
  3. Right intention - intention must only be to achieve good outcome
  4. Proportionality - good effect must be at least equivalent to bad effect
61
Q

Explain how NML influenced the Roman Catholic Church

A

• For Aquinas, the cardinal virtues were as important as the obligations and rules e.g., 10 commandments and precepts
• For Roman Catholic Church (RCC), rules were as important as commandments - e.g., Aquinas would argue abortion to save mothers life is ok, but RCC would argue it is wrong in any case
• RCC created manuals - scholars wrote books on moral theology and ethics in 17th century, these were used to train clergy in applying moral law to specific ages
• Causirty: Latin term for ‘case law’ = the Jesuits (members of the society of Jesus) created moral rule books. Catholic NML is deontological

62
Q

Which two scholars proposed the modern version of natural moral law proportionalism

A

Hoose and McCormick

63
Q

The basic idea of proportionalism

A

Follow NML, but account for specific exceptions

64
Q

Proportionalism argues that in all situations, which 3 things should be considered?

A

Value, disvalue and intention

65
Q

Explain proportionalism

A

They weigh up intrinsic evil of an act and balance it against the consequences, there are certain moral rules it is never ok to go against unless there is a proportionate reason to do so e.g., abortion

66
Q

True or false: Proportionalism is a modern version of NML

A

True

67
Q

What did John Finnis believe in his contemporary version of NML?

A

Ethics should be about facilitating human flourishing

68
Q

True or false: Finnis covers more than Aquinas

A

True

69
Q

Finnis proposes 7 ________ goods

A

Basic

70
Q

Unlike Aquinas’ NML, Finnis’ version of NML doesn’t require ______________

A

Theism

71
Q

List Finnis’ 7 basic goods

A
  • Aesthetic experience
  • Life
  • Knowledge
  • Play
  • Experience
  • Socialability
  • Practical reason
  • Religion
72
Q

Explain how Aquinas’ theory is also teleological

A
  • Primary precepts are deontological as they must be followed
  • However, they can also be teleological as following them leads to us fulfilling out purpose
73
Q

When examining the key features of NML, what MUST be included in the answer?

A
  • Deontological
  • 5 primary precepts
  • DoDE
74
Q

Situation ethics is a _________________________ approach

A

Teleological

75
Q

Which scholar founded situation ethics?

A

Fletcher

76
Q

Basic principle of situation ethics

A

Every action performed must be guided by love

77
Q

The best type of love is…

A

Agape

78
Q

Agape was based on which person?

A

Jesus and his loving actions narrated in scripture

79
Q

Agape

A

Unconditional love, the most important thing is the action that it brings

80
Q

Key quote from Fletchers relating to agape

A

‘Anything can be justified as long as it brings unconditional love’

81
Q

What year was situation ethics founded by Fletcher

A

1960

82
Q

True or false: Fletcher renounced his belief in God and became a humanist

A

True

83
Q

List the events that occurred in 1960s that inspired Fletcher

A
  • African-American civil rights ending segregation
  • Human rights movements
  • Anti-war protests - The Cold War
  • Equal rights for women
84
Q

Name of Fletchers book

A

Situation ethics

85
Q

Explain the key quote from Fletcher stemming from the can driver anecdote

A

‘There are times where a man has to push his principles aside and do the right thing’
Emphasises how it is necessary to break rules to the most loving end

86
Q

Situation ethics was a _____________ ___________ from Christian ethics

A

Radical change

87
Q

What did Fletcher argue about absolute rules e.g., NML in situation ethics?

A

They are too demanding and restrictive

88
Q

The only rule in situation ethics

A

Agape

89
Q

Situation ethics is midway between ________________ and _______________________

A
  • Legalism
  • Antinomianism
90
Q

Explain the quote from Fletcher ’The morality of an action depends on the situation’

A

The rightness or wrongness of an action depends depends on the situation e.g., telling the truth could be the best thing in one context but in another, it may not be

91
Q

Explain how Mark 3:1-6 relates to situation ethics

A

‘Stretch out your hand’

  • Jesus broke the laws of Sabbath when he healed someone’s hand as it was a form of work
  • Emphasises how no matter the law, you should always do the most loving thing
  • Compatible with Fletchers
92
Q

Legalistic ethics

A

There’s a code of moral law - follow law no matter what

93
Q

Situation ethics

A

Any situation can be good or bad depending on whether it follows ‘Christian love’ - only rule is agape

94
Q

Antinomian ethics

A

Rejects rules - do whatever you like

95
Q

Explain what Fletcher means by not following Biblical commands slavishly

A

Commands don’t need to be followed all the time, if they prevent you from doing the most loving thing, they can be excused, just like Jesus did

96
Q

Explain what Fletcher means by all moral decisions being hypothetical

A

They depend on what serves love - you can’t pre-think decisions

97
Q

Explain how Fletcher refers to mistakes in SE

A

Mistakes are inevitable but as long as intention and action is supposed to be loving, it’s acceptable

98
Q

Explain what Fletcher says about hiding behind rules and being a coward

A

To hide behind obligations (rules) is ethical cowardice and stops any moral development
- If you refuse to break a rule, but you know breaking it will be agape, it makes you a coward

99
Q

Which Biblical quote helps to emphasise that love is the most important thing?

A

‘Love your neighbour as you love yourself’

100
Q

Why is SE consequentialist?

A

It focuses on the consequences of an act

101
Q

Pope Pius XII statement on SE

A

‘I condemn situation ethics because it justifies intrinsic evil such as birth control’

102
Q

What was the significance behind the four principles Fletcher developed?

A

He believed that all ethical theories should be based on them, hence, he based his SE on it

103
Q

List Fletcher’s four principles

A
  1. Pragmatism
  2. Relativism
  3. Positivism
  4. Personalism
104
Q

Pragmatism in SE

A

Being practically wise, a good ethical theory is one where practical things can be done

105
Q

Relativism in SE

A

Means being unique, a good ethical theory is unique to all situations

106
Q

Positivism in SE

A

Means choosing God is love, a good theory is one that says what is loving as said by God

107
Q

Personalism in SE

A

Means unique to all Individual - putting people at centre of situation and thinking of their best interest makes a good ethical theory

108
Q

Strengths of natural moral law

A
  • Empirical, relies on observations, doesn’t require theism
  • DoDE resolves conflicting secondary precepts
  • Give us autonomy to use our reason as to what is right or wrong empowering humans
  • Secondary precepts adopt a cultural relativism approach
  • John Walter’s ‘foundational, universal and absolute approach to ethics’ - provides clarity and consistency for moral decision making
  • Is consistent and flexible - allow for human interpretation (secondary precepts) so they can be made relevant to society.
109
Q

Weaknesses to natural moral law

A
  • Finnis’ version doesn’t require theism and covers more
  • Outdated on issues like sex ethics
  • Too absolutist
  • Society is becoming more secular, NML depends on belief in God, it relies on the fact that God is the creator - Finnis said God isn’t needed for eudaemonia
110
Q

What is the purpose of the agapeic calculus?

A

A formulaic way of putting situation ethics into practice

111
Q

What does the agapeic calculus calculate?

A

Which action is going to generate the most loving outcome - takes into account risk of performing the action, how much love will be spread and how it will affect people

112
Q

The four factors of agapeic calculus to consider in all moral decision making

A
  • The end
  • The means - actual actions performed
  • The motive
  • The consequence
113
Q

List Fletcher’s four examples where the agapeic calculus is applied (no need to explain)

A
  1. Sacrificial suicide
  2. Patriotic prostitution
  3. Sacrificial adultery
  4. Justifiable mass killing
114
Q

Explain how the agapeic calculus relates to Fletcher’s sacrificial suicide example

A
  • Terminally ill patient with 6 months left to live
  • Doctor can prescribe pills allowing him to live 3 more years
  • Life insurance expires in October and won’t be renewed so his family will be left with nothing on death
  • Should he take the pills? No
  • End result is loving, means is loving, motive is loving, and consequence is loving
115
Q

Explain how the agapeic calculus relates to Fletcher’s justifiable mass killing example

A
  • Atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 152 000 killed
  • The next day, Japan sued for peace
  • Military advisors favoured using them, scientists said there was no alternative
  • Committee decided the lives saved by ending the war swiftly far outweighed the lives destroyed by using it
  • End result is loving, the means was loving, the motive was loving, and consequence was loving
116
Q

Explain how the agapeic calculus relates to Fletcher’s patriotic prostitution example

A
  • Government asked a woman to seduce and sleep with an enemy spy to blackmail hum
  • This would end the war and thousands of lives would be saved but is against her morals
  • End result is loving, means is loving, motive and consequence is loving
117
Q

Explain how the agapeic calculus relates to Fletcher’s sacrificial adultery example

A
  • Married German woman was captured and taken to a prisoner-of-war camp
  • To leave and be with her family, she needed to be pregnant
  • She asked a guard to impregnate her, she returned to Germany and hadn’t told her family
  • End result is loving, means is End result is loving, means is loving, motive and consequence is loving
118
Q

Explain the strengths of Fletcher’s situation ethics

A

• Gives individual autonomy - empowers individuals to make moral decisions themselves based on agape calculus and the situation
• Flexible - Fletcher says ‘love decisions are made situationally’ - the only absolute in SE is agape, making it relevant and applicable to 21st century society as love is promoted (prevents it being outdated)
• Consistent with Jesus’ teachings of agape (Mark 3:1-6 and ‘love your neighbour as you love yourself’) - appealing to Christians, as it emphasises the Son of Gods’ teachings have importance and authority - SE provides a way of following his teachings (Jesus was also a situationist not legalist e.g., women caught in adultery)
• Encourages acceptance of homosexuality, divorce, remarriage making it relevant to a secular society
• Easy to follow and understand as it follows one simple principle - agape

119
Q

Explain the weaknesses of Fletcher’s situation ethics

A

• Love isn’t the only teaching Jesus promoted, he also taught other divine commands e.g., 10 commandments
• William Barclay: ‘It gives a terrifying degree of freedom’ - it’s overwhelming for individual to make all decisions and can be impossible in certain situations, society needs more rules than just ‘love’, doesn’t work for everyday life e.g., driving a car, there must be regulations - his SE will descend into antinomialism
• Open to exploitation - humans are fallible to mistakes e.g., link to original sin, in instances, they won’t of the loving thing yet believe they have done, it gives people too much autonomy
• Depends on belief in God - based on teachings of Jesus also, based on positivism which is accepting God is a God of love
• Pope Pius XII: ‘I condemn situation ethics as it justifies intrinsic evil like birth control’
• Fletcher too optimistic about humans being able to make morally correct decisions without bias, rules needed to avoid ‘moral chaos’ (Robinson)

120
Q

What type of theory is VE?

A

Character based

121
Q

VE is a theory to be the most ____________ that you can

A

Virtuous

122
Q

Which philosopher founded virtue ethics?

A

Aristotle

123
Q

Explain the quote ’One swallow does not a spring make nor one fine day’

A

If you see one bird, it doesn’t mean spring has arrived, if you see one nice day, it doesn’t mean spring has arrived. In the same way, being virtuous takes a lifetime, it isn’t just one action, or one day being virtuous, it is a continuous habit

124
Q

Definition of virtues

A

Behaviour showing a high moral standard - Aristotle believed it was a trait of excellence based of arête. It is not a tendency/one off, it is a character trait, something done day in day out e.g., kindness

125
Q

True or false: Being virtuous is intentional

A

True

126
Q

Where was the main ethics of Aristotle found?

A

Nicromachean ethics

127
Q

Where does virtues stem from?

A

Arête

128
Q

Aretaic ethics is ____________ centred ethics

A

Strength

129
Q

Instead of ‘what should I do?’, what does VE emphasise?

A

‘What kind of person should I be?’

130
Q

What does VE argue about following rules and regulations?

A

They are often unfair

131
Q

Criticism of VE related to Aristotle being elitist

A

He was sexist and elitist, he focused his philosophy and ethics on educated gentlemen, was snot applicable to entire population

132
Q

Explain the quote ‘We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence then, is not an act, but a habit’

A

To become morally good, you need to repeatedly do good virtues and actions so that it becomes a habit, they should be an standard practice in your everyday life. Always strive to be the best person possible. Develop good habits to be a virtuous person.

133
Q

What did Macintyre point out about different virtues?

A

The scholar Macintyre points out that different virtues have been prized in different societies, and at different points in history.
• VE is morally relativist and a culturally relativist because every society and religion has different virtues, it all depends on society. What is considered virtuous has changed.

AO2: considers all time frames, allows different generations to use. However, it’s not objective, not everyone will have the same standard.

134
Q

Why is VE considered a hybrid theory?

A

It is character based and teleological, as it aims to aim for eudaemonia you need to be virtuous

135
Q

Explain the basis of Aristotle’s function argument

A

• The human good is a function of the soul in accordance with the virtue
• Function is work - something is good if it fulfils its function
• Our function is to develop virtues so we can achieve eudaemonia, a knife’s function is to cut

136
Q

Why did Aristotle propose the hierarchy of souls?

A

To explain human happiness, Aristotle draws on a view of nature he derived from his biological investigations. If we look at nature, there are four different kinds of things that exist in the world, each one defined by a different purpose

137
Q

Explain (in full) the hierarchy of souls

A
  1. Minerals (rocks, vegetables and other lifeless thing) - only goal is to seek rest, they’re ‘beyond stupid’ and have no soul
  2. Vegetative (plants and wildlife) - a new alive thing emerges - because they seek nourishment and growth, they have souls which can be satisfied
  3. Animals - all creatures belong to animal kingdom, these are a high level of life (than above) which seek pleasure and reproduction - their function is to survive
  4. Humans - different to animals because Aristotle said we are capable of acting in accordance with principles (rules) - in doing so, we take responsibility for our choices e.g., we can blame a human for stealing as we know its wrong, but can’t blame animal as they don’t know it’s wrong.
138
Q

How did Aristotle argue humans were different to animals

A

Unlike animals we have rational available to us, we search for food and nourishment, but also have rational to be good and better our lives
• Aquinas says: ‘a good life is one where we exercise reason’
• A good life is where someone uses their rational to develop virtues to achieve eudaemonia

AQA AS (A-level) Religious Studies (7 decks)

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