Arguments for the Existence of God Flashcards
Main scholar in the DA
William Paley
Main scholar in the CA
St Thomas Aquinas
Main scholar in the OA
St Anselm
Teleological
‘Telos’ - end or purpose
‘Logica’ - logic or reasoning
Empirical evidence
Evidence gained through observation
The DA uses which type of knowledge and evidence?
A posteriori knowledge and empirical evidence
A posteriori
Knowledge after sense experiece
A priori
Knowledge before sense experience - logic and reasoning
Inductive argument
Uses a posteriori reasoning, not 100 percentage factually true
Deductive argument
If the premises are true, the conclusion is 100% true
Paley’s observations of the universe
- Complexity
- Regularity
- Purpose
His analogy was the…
Watch analogy
Explain Paley’s analogy
His analogy: When walking across rough ground, stubbing one’s toe against a stone wouldn’t raise the question how it came to be there. In coming across a watch, it would be reasonable to ask that question.
- Observation would point to the sheer complexity and detail of a watch, suitability and purpose,
- This would not be by chance, it would require explanation, there must be an intelligent watch maker.
- The universe is similarly complex, it shows the same suitability, precision and arrangement to serve it’s purpose.
- This couldn’t have occurred by chance - it must’ve been designed by a universe maker.
- The far greater complexity of the world requires an infinitely greater designer.
- This designer must be God.
State the key quotation associated with Paley’s watch analogy
‘The marks of design are too strong to be gotten over. Design must have had a designer. That designer must have been a person. That person is God’
List the four illustrations that Paley provided to support his argument
- Eye is complex
- Fins and gills of a fish
- Birds bones and feathers
- Planetary orbits
Design qua purpose
Everything that is designed has a purpose e.g., machines were designed to manufacture
Design qua regularity
Everything that is designed has been designed for order and regularity e.g., the seasons provide structure and order
True of false
The statement written by a student in an exam is valid: ‘…Hume criticised Paley…’
False - Hume and Paley were different time periods, Hume died several years before Paley’s natural theology
Hume compared the universe to a…
Vegetable
Epicurean hypothesis
Initially, all the atoms were scattered and not ordered, eventually, overtime, they came together forming a period of order from a period of chaos
Explain Hume’s criticism of anthropomorphism
We have no knowledge of universe designing, so we create God in our image, therefore, the designer may not necessarily be a God of classical theism
Explain Hume’s criticism of mortal bodies
Intelligent minds are capable of design, could they be attached to mortal bodies
Explain Hume’s criticism of teamwork
Teamwork is often behind designed, it may be possible that the universe was designed by a number of deities
Explain Hume’s criticism of the universe being a vegetable
Doesn’t require explanation in terms of a designer, it just grows without influence or design
Explain how the issues of evil links to the DA
The existence of natural and moral evil makes it difficult to see God’s omnipotence and omnibenevolence - inconsistent triad
Explain how Swinburne supports the DA
‘Simplicity is always evidence for the truth’
How did Paley defend the criticisms related to evil?
Evil is unavoidable and necessary e.g., soul making
How does evolution support the design argument?
Compatible, God was the designer of nature, he caused evolution
Explain how the fine tuning argument links to the strengths of the DA
Everything in the universe is so perfectly fine tuned, e.g., if gravity was only a fraction of what it is currently, we wouldn’t exist, hence, only God could be capable of such perfection
How is Paley’s argument being inductive a strength?
Uses empirical evidence and is based on what we observe
Explain how evolution can also be used as a criticism of the DA
Hume’s vegetable theory is backed by evolution
What is an issue with the DA being inductive?
Only deductive arguments give absolute certainty
List the 2 main quotes from Hume in criticising the DA and explain them
- ‘A wise man proportions his belief to the evidence’ - wise person only believes something when there’s concrete evidence
- ‘The world is faulty and imperfect’ - too much evil to see an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God
State and explain the the supporting quote from Socrates for the DA
‘With such signs of forethought in the design of living creatures, can you doubt they are the choice and work of design’ - someone has thought clearly about the work and choice of design
Who formulated the Ontological Argument?
St Anselm
What does the term ‘Ontos’ mean?
‘Being or existence’
What does ‘logos’ refer to in the Ontological Argument?
‘Knowledge and reasoning’
What type of reasoning does the Ontological Argument rely on?
‘A priori reasoning’
What is the main goal of the Ontological Argument according to St Anselm?
‘Faith seeking understanding’
What are analytical statements?
‘True by definition’
In the context of the Ontological Argument, what is a subject?
‘Who/what the sentence is about’
What is a predicate?
‘Gives information/properties about the subject’
What are necessary truths?
‘Statements that could not possibly be false’
What are necessary things?
‘Things that cannot fail to exist’
What is the subject and predicate in the statement ‘God exists’?
Subject: ‘God’; Predicate: ‘exists’
What position did St Anselm hold?
‘Archbishop of Canterbury and Benedictine monk’
What is the title of St Anselm’s book that discusses the Ontological Argument?
‘Proslogion’
What does St Anselm define God as?
‘That than which nothing greater can be conceived’
Which Psalm does St Anselm quote to support his argument?
‘Psalms 14:1’
What are the two ways God may exist according to Anselm?
- In the mind alone (INTELLECTU)
- In reality (INRE)
What is the conclusion of St Anselm’s argument regarding God’s existence?
‘God must exist in the mind and reality’
What is the nature of God according to Anselm?
‘It is his nature to exist’
Who criticized the Ontological Argument using the analogy of the perfect lost island?
‘Gaunilo’
What does the analogy of the perfect lost island illustrate?
‘It cannot exist in reality, only in the mind’
What is Gaunilo’s main argument against Anselm’s reasoning?
‘You can think of the most perfect thing, but they don’t exist’
How did Anselm respond to Gaunilo’s criticism?
‘By presenting contingency and necessity’
What is the key difference between the lost island and God according to Anselm?
‘God has necessary existence, while the island is contingent’
What is aseity in relation to God?
‘God’s quality of being self-sufficient’
What is the first premise of Anselm’s argument?
‘God is the greatest conceivable being’
What is the second premise of Anselm’s argument?
‘The greatest conceivable being cannot be conceived not to exist’
What is the conclusion of Anselm’s argument?
‘God cannot not exist’
INTELLECU meaning
In the mind alone
INRE meaning
In reality
Existence is a ___________ of God
Predicate
Psalms 14:1
‘The fool says in his heart there is no God’ - the fact that the fool can rationalise and understand God means he should logically understand his existence
Proslogium 2 structure
- God is that than which nothing greater can be conceived
- It is greater to exist in reality than in the mind
- As the greatest conceivable being, he must exist in reality and in the mind
Explain Gaunilo’s criticism to Proslogium 2
‘On behalf of the fool’
Used the exact same argument but replaced God with the ‘perfect lost island’
- It’s possible to imagine the greatest conceivable perfect island
- It’s greater to exist INRE than INTELLECU
- Therefore it must exist INRE
BUT… it doesn’t exist INRE
Explain Proslogium 3
Response to Gaunilo: contingency and necessity
- God is the greatest conceivable being
- The greatest conceivable being cannot be conceived not to exist
- God and God alone must posses necessary existence, he cannot not exist
What does Gaunilo criticize about Anselm’s arguments?
Gaunilo argues that just because the fool can think of something, it doesn’t mean it exists in reality
This criticism emphasizes that mere thought does not equate to existence.
What analogy does Gaunilo use to illustrate his point?
The island analogy
Gaunilo argues that just because one can conceive of a perfect island does not mean it exists.
What is one example Gaunilo uses to show the unreliability of God’s existence?
Hearing gossip
Gossip is unreliable, similar to the argument for God’s existence based solely on thought.
What is the key criticism regarding defining things into existence?
You can’t demonstrate the existence of something through just having an idea of it
This highlights the weakness of arguments that rely solely on conceptualization.
Who created an Ontological Argument similar to Anselm’s?
Rene Descartes
Descartes argued that existence is a necessary attribute of a perfect being, similar to the properties of a triangle.
What is Descartes’ reasoning regarding God’s existence?
It’s impossible to take away existence from God as it would be a contradiction
He posits that God possesses all perfect characteristics, including existence.
What are the two main criticisms Kant has regarding Ontological Arguments?
- ‘Existence is not a predicate’
- ‘Existing necessarily’ does not imply real existence
Kant argues that existence adds no new qualities to the concept of God.
What does Kant argue about predicates?
A predicate is qualities attached to a subject
Existence does not add anything to the understanding of a subject.
What example does Kant use to illustrate his point about existence as a predicate?
Explaining a thaler (coin)
Describing the thaler’s qualities adds understanding, but saying it exists adds nothing.
What is the weakness in Anselm’s and Descartes’ arguments according to Kant?
They fail to provide new knowledge through the predicate ‘exists’
Kant believes this weakens the argument for God’s existence.
What is the implication of the statement ‘God exists necessarily’ according to Kant?
It is logically true based on definition, but does not prove God’s real existence
Many believe experience is necessary to know God’s existence.
What crucial word does Kant say is missing from the Ontological Argument?
‘If’
The argument should state ‘If there is a God, then God will exist necessarily.’
What does Kant mean by stating ‘It would be self-contradictory to posit a triangle and yet reject its 3 angles’?
Rejecting the concept of a triangle altogether does not lead to contradiction
This illustrates the distinction between necessary attributes and the existence of the concept itself.
What type of argument is the Ontological Argument?
Deductive argument
A deductive argument provides absolute certainty if the premises are true.
What is the certainty level of deductive arguments compared to inductive arguments?
Deductive arguments give absolute certainty; inductive arguments provide only probability
This distinction highlights the strength of deductive reasoning.
Who critiqued the reliance on empiricism in knowledge acquisition?
Plato
Plato suggested that the senses are unreliable, leading to deceptive observations.
What does Anselm’s definition of God imply about God’s existence?
If there is a God, then God will exist necessarily
This definition is central to the Ontological Argument but is contested.
What is a major criticism of the Ontological Argument regarding its phrasing?
It fails because it omits the word ‘if’
The argument should clarify that it depends on the hypothetical existence of God.
What assumption does Anselm make about the Fool in his argument?
Anselm assumes the Fool accepts his definition of God
This assumption is critical, as not everyone shares the same definition of God.
What did Kant argue regarding the Ontological Argument?
The argument only shows that ‘IF’ God exists, He exists necessarily
Kant’s perspective emphasizes the conditional nature of the argument.
What did Karl Barth concede about the Ontological Argument?
It was not intended as proof for God’s existence but as a result of Anselm’s religious experience
This insight suggests a more personal interpretation of the argument.
True or False
The Ontological Argument can persuade those who do not believe in God.
False
The argument is more effective for those who already possess faith.
Fill in the blank: The Ontological Argument is a __________ argument, meaning if it succeeds, it is proof of the existence of God.
Deductive
Plato’s key quote
‘The body is a source of endless trouble for us’
What is the status of Anselm’s Ontological Argument as ‘Proof’?
It offers certain proof if Anselm’s definition of God is accepted
Unlike probabilistic inductive arguments, it is a deductive argument that is a priori and does not rely on sense experience.
What did Kant argue regarding the Ontological Argument?
Kant stated that Ontological arguments merely show that ‘IF’ God exists, He exists necessarily
This indicates the argument’s dependency on accepting Anselm’s definition of God.
What is Karl Barth’s view on Anselm’s Ontological Argument?
Barth believes the argument is about faith, not logic
He asserts that Anselm’s argument is a result of a religious experience.
How does Anselm describe God in his Ontological Argument?
As ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’
This definition is central to Anselm’s argument.
What does Anselm mean by ‘I believe in order to understand’?
Faith precedes understanding
The argument is a result of faith, not its cause.
What is the value of Anselm’s Ontological Argument for those with faith?
It is written as a prayer and immersed in religious language
It holds value for individuals who already possess faith.
What is Fideism?
The belief that faith alone is required in religion
It posits that faith does not depend on reason.
What was Aquinas’s stance on knowing about the nature of God?
Aquinas stated it is impossible to know about the nature of God
This includes understanding His definition.
Fill in the blank: Anselm’s Ontological Argument is a _______ argument.
Deductive
True or False: Anselm’s argument provides proof for the existence of God regardless of individual belief.
False
Whose work heavily influenced Aquinas
Aristotle - he wanted to connect Christianity with the work of Aristotle
How does the CA prove God’s existence?
Through the cosmos and our existence
What type of logic and argument is the CA?
Inductive and a posteriori (uses empirical evidence)
Book of Aquinas
Summa Theologica
Main question in CA
‘Why is there something rather than nothing?’
Necessary existence
Something that doesn’t require anything else to exist, it has to exist
Contingent
Relies on something else to exist
Infinite regress
Going back without any initial starting point
Efficient cause
Someone who has caused something
Final cause
The purpose of the initial cause
Way 1 of the CA
The unmoved mover
- Objects are in motion
- Everything in motion was put into motion by something else
- Can’t be an infinite regress of movers
- Must be one prime mover who itself is unmoved
Way 2 of the CA
The uncaused causer
- Everything exists because it has a cause
- Anything that has caused has to be by something else
- There can’t be an infinite regress of causers
There must be an uncaused causer
Way 3 of the CA
Contingency and necessity
Denies ex nihilism nihio fit
- There are contingent things
- Contingent things rely on other contingent things
- There can’t be an infinite regress of contingent things
Must be one necessary being
Which modern day argument supports Aquinas’ CA
The Kalam Argument - Al Gazali, popularised by William Lane Craig
What does the Kalam argument argue
The idea of infinity is impossible as it is beyond mathematical formula
Structure of the Kalam Argument
- Whatever comes into being must have a cause
- The universe came into being
- It must have a cause
- The cause of it’s existence must be God
Explain Bertrand Russel’s 3 main criticisms of the CA
- Brute fact - ‘the universe exists and that is all’
- Rejects concept of necessary being nevause teh statements about this are synthetic, not analytical, so there’s no contradiction to say he doesn’t;t exist
- Argued Aquinas was guilty of fallacy of composition - just because objects in the universe were created DOES NOT MEAN THAT they were created by God
Explain the criticisms presented by Hume for the CA
- The universe is eternal so how can it have a cause, it is it’s own self sufficient being
- ‘We have no direct experience with creation’, so we cannot speak meaningfully about it
- Why can’t the universe be it’s own necessary being, why does it have to be God - supported by Occams Razor
- Contradiction - if everything has a cause, why doesn’t God
- Problem of induction - we can only see a small part of the universe, so to suggest God is responsible for creation is out of proportion and too generalised
- We cannot assume any God
