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non-infectious diseases and disorders Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the components of a negative feedback loop?

A
  1. Stimulus: change that occurs
  2. Receptor: detects change
  3. Control centre: receives info from receptor
  4. Effectors: muscles, organs, glands
  5. Response: what the effector does to counteract stimulus
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2
Q

name behavioural adaptations.
give at least 2

A
  • move to shaded/exposed areas to decrease/increase heat exposure
  • move to different habitats that are within their tolerance range
  • increasing SA available for heat absorption
  • enabling more heat to be evaporated through saliva on itself
  • replenish fluids –> maintain cells in a consistent, isotonic state
  • remain inactive during the heat of the day to prevent increased metabolic body heat
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3
Q

name structural adaptations.
give at least 2

A
  • feathers, hair, fur trap provides insulation –> reduces amount of heat lost
  • compact bodies reduces SA available for heat exchange –> animals to retain heat more effectively + vice versa
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4
Q

name physiological adaptations.
give at least 2

A
  • vasoconstricting/dilating –> alters amount of heat lost to surroundings
  • increased/decreased metabolism –> produce heat energy internally/cool body temperature
  • making small muscular contractions produces heat energy
  • sweat evaporates from the skin –> cooling effect
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5
Q

what does the central nervous system consist of?

A

brain and spinal cord

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6
Q

what does the peripheral nervous system consist of?

A

all nerves throughout body that aren’t brain and spinal cord

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7
Q

what does the peripheral nervous system do?

A

detects+carries information to and from central nervous system via electrochemical responses

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8
Q

describe the 4 main parts of the neuron.

A
  • cell body: contains nucleus, organelles while maintaining cell function
  • dendrites: branch-like extensions that receive signals –> conveys them toward the cell body
  • axon: long extensions of the cytoplasm that conduct messages away from the cell body
  • myelin sheath: fatty insulating substance protects some nerve fibres
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9
Q

what’s the function and general structure of motor neurons, interneurons, sensory neurons, respectively.

A
  • transfer messages from CNS to effectors (muscles/glands) - Short dendrite, long axon.
  • the link between sensory and motor neurons (found in CNS) - Short dendrite, short axon.
  • carry impulses from sensory cells in the PNS to CNS - Long dendrite, short axon.
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10
Q

describe how plants maintain water balance.
give at least 2 specific examples

A
  • high water level is in plants –> guard cells on leaves absorb water –> turgid –> thin outer walls to stretch outwards, while the thick inner walls don’t bulge –> stomata opens –> water diffused out of the plant until homeostasis
  • low water level –> guard cells become flaccid + stomata close –> reduces water loss
    Orientation: angling leaves away from the sun at different times of the day reduces
    the rate of transpiration
  • Smaller leaves - smaller SA:V
  • Water storage
  • Regulating the opening and closing of stomata
  • Waxy cuticle - waterproof
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11
Q

what are the different components of the ear?

A

Pina, outer ear canal, ear drum, ossicles, oval window, round window, cochlear, auditory nerve

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12
Q

what’s the function of the pina?

A

Collects sound waves from the external environment and directs it into the outer ear canal.

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13
Q

what’s the function of the outer ear canal?

A

Carries sound waves to the eardrum

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14
Q

what’s the function of the eardrum?

A

Vibrates due to sound waves and transmits these vibrations to the middle ear

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15
Q

what’s the function of the ossicles?

A

Amplify vibrations from the ear drum and transfer these to the oval window via the stirrup

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16
Q

what’s the function of the oval window?

A

Separates the middle ear from the fluid-filled cochlea.

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17
Q

what’s the function of the round window?

A

Vibrates in conjunction with the oval window, allowing the fluid in the cochlea to move

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18
Q

what’s the function of the cochlea?

A

Contains fluid. Organ of corti in the cochlea picks up the sound waves and converts the vibrations into chemical impulses

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19
Q

what’s the function of the auditory nerve?

A

Carries the electrochemical impulses from the receptor cells in the cochlea to the brain

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20
Q

what are the two types of hearing loss and where do they occur?

A

conductive: outermiddle ear
sensorineural: inner ear

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21
Q

what are the factors of conductive hearing loss?

A
  • problem with mechanical conduction of vibrations through the
    outer/middle ear.
    • cochlea may still be functional but receives insufficient signal to create an auditory impulse.
  • inhibits movement of vibrations
    through the outer and middle ear.
  • due to structural malformation, perforated eardrum, outer/middle ear infection, damaged ossicles from trauma (sudden loud noises) or hardening of stirrup.
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22
Q

what are the factors of sensorineural hearing loss?

A
  • damage to/malformation of inner ear (incl. parts of cochlea, hair cells, auditory nerve)
  • damage and hearing loss usually permanent –> decreased loudness and clarity of sound.
  • excessive noise exposure, heredity, birth defects, infections, tumours, medication, ageing
23
Q

What’s the characteristics+function of the sclera?

A

Opaque, tough protective coat that surrounds the eyes.

24
Q

What’s the characteristics+function of the cornea?

A

Transparent structure of the sclera that covers the iris and pupil and allows light to enter the eye

25
Q

What’s the characteristics+function of the aqueous humour?

A

Clear fluid between the cornea and the lens of the eye

26
Q

What’s the characteristics+function of the pupil?

A

Hole in the centre of the iris where light enters the eye.

27
Q

What’s the characteristics+function of the iris?

A
  • Ring of muscle
  • Forms coloured part of the eye
  • Controls how wide the pupil is+how much light passes through the eye
  • Bright light –> iris narrows the pupil –> reducing amount of light entering the eye + vice versa
28
Q

What’s the characteristics+function of the lens?

A

Biconvex, elastic structure that changes shape to refract light via accommodation

29
Q

What’s the characteristics+function of the vitreous humour?

A

Clear fluid between the lens and the retina which reflects light, helps maintain the shape of the eyeball

30
Q

What’s the characteristics+function of the retina?

A

Thin membrane lined photoreceptors covering the rear portion of the eye.

31
Q

What’s the characteristics+function of the fovea?

A

Depression in the macula, centre of the retina, contains cones and
provides the greatest visual acuity

32
Q

What’s the characteristics+function of the optic nerve?

A

Carries the electrochemical impulses from the rod and cone cells in the retina to the brain.

33
Q

what are the components of the eye?

A

sclera, cornea, aqueous humour, pupil, iris, lens, vitreous humour, retina, fovea, optic nerve

34
Q

purpose of cone and rod cells

A
  • conversion into electrochemical impulses –> brain for interpretation as images
  • photosensitive pigments - retinal, a molecule derived from vitamin A+opsin.
  • when exposed to light –> retinal molecule changes its form –> light energy electrochemical impulses.
35
Q

compare cone cells and rod cells distribution, structure, function.

A

rod: evenly distributed, mostly in periphery, absent from fovea, rhodopsin(can’t detect colour), sensitive to low levels of light, night vision, detects light, shadow, contrasts and movement, peripheral vision
cone: in groups, middle of retina, concentrated in fovea, iodopsin, sensitive to red, green, blue, colour vision but relies on stimulation of opsin by visible light

36
Q

whats a common visual disorders?

A

myopia and hyperopia, macular degeneration, cataracts

37
Q

what are the 3 main functions of the kidney?

A
  • filtering small substance out through glomerulus walls, large molecules stay in capillaries
  • reabsorption of substances required by the body from tubules of kidney to capillaries by diffusion or active transport
  • excreting toxic substances such as urea and creatine from blood capillaries into the urine in the renal tubules of the nephron
38
Q

what are the components of the kidneys?

A

renal arteries, nephron, glomerulus, bowman’s capsule, proximal tube, loop of henle, distal tube, collecting duct

39
Q

what’s the function of the renal arteries?

A

Carries blood from the heart to the kidney.

40
Q

what’s the function of the nephron?

A

Removes urea and balances salt and water levels in the blood.

41
Q

what’s the function of the glomerulus?

A

Network of capillaries inside the Bowman’s capsule.

42
Q

what’s the function of the bowman’s capsule?

A

Hollow structure in the nephron that receives filtrate from the glomerulus
and allows it to pass into the tubules.

43
Q

what’s the function of the proximal tube?

A

Tubule closest to the Bowman’s capsule and reabsorbs required
substances into the bloodstream

44
Q

what’s the function of the loop of henle?

A

Part of the tubule that is in the medulla and plays a role in osmoregulation

45
Q

what’s the function of the distal tube?

A

Tubule further away from the Bowman’s capsule and reabsorbs required substances into the bloodstream

46
Q

what’s the function of the collecting duct?

A

Contains water and waste that remain after filtration, reabsorption and secretion

47
Q

What are some causes of loss of kidney function?

A
  • high levels of blood glucose –> filter more blood –> stress of nephrons –> damaged
  • nephrons’ unable to carry out filtration –> molecules - proteins ‘leak’ into the tubules –> blockages
  • constant high force of the blood being pushed through the walls of the blood vessels of the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule
    permanently damages the nephrons
  • recurrent kidney infections –> damages nephrons
48
Q

outline how a cochlear implant works.

A
  • device replaces function of the hair cells on Organ of Corti on a damaged cochlea.
  • microphone of the speech processors detects sound–> digital signal –> transmitter –> receiver - digital sounds to electrical signals.
  • signals –> electrode array implanted in cochlea, nerve endings are stimulated, signals to brain.
49
Q

outline how a bone conduction implant works.

A
  • microphone in processor behind ear detects sound waves –> vibrations.
  • Vibrations transmitted by implants to bone above the ear –> the bone –> cochlea.
  • sound vibrations cause movement in fluid of cochlea –> movement of hair cells –> electrical impulse –> auditory nerve
50
Q

outline how a hearing aid works.

A
  • worn in or behind ear to magnify vibrations –> better transmission from mid ear to inner ear
  • magnifying sound vibrations that enter ear –> increased hearing sensitivity
51
Q

how does laser eye surgery work?

A
  • lasers change curvature of cornea –> light correctly refracted –> focused image on the retina.
  • surgeon creates thin flap, top of the cornea, folded back to access underlying stroma .
  • excimer laser uses short-wave ultraviolet light removes tiny amounts of tissue to reshape the cornea –> focuses more accurately.
  • myopia –> cornea is flattened hyperopia –> curvature of the cornea is increased.
52
Q

how do spectacles work for hyperopia and myopia?

A
  • concave lenses are thicker towards the outside and thinner towards the inside –> myopia.
    • lenses bend the light rays outwards causing them to diverge before reaching the eye.
    • extends focal length of light rays –> focused distant image fall on retina instead of in front
  • convex lenses are thicker toward the centre and thinner towards the edges –> hyperopia.
    • lens bends incoming light rays inwards, converges before they reach the eye.
    • shortens the focal length, focused image of a near object to fall
      on the retina rather than behind it
53
Q

how does haemodialysis work?

A
  • dialysis machine filters blood outside of the body
  • patient connected dialyser pumps blood through tubes with semi-permeable membranes that only allow small molecules, such as waste materials, to pass through.
  • tubes submerged in dialysate - coiled to increase SA, flows opposite direction to blood to maintain a concentration gradient –> increases diffusion rate
  • waste materials move
    through the semipermeable membrane into dialysate via diffusion as metabolic waste concentration is higher in blood than dialysate.
54
Q

how do peritoneal dialysis work?

A
  • waste filtered from blood inside the body
  • dialysate into abdominal cavity via catheter.
  • lining of abdomen, peritoneum, acts as natural filtering membrane.
  • dialysate remains in the body for several hours, allowing high concentrations of waste materials in blood to move through peritoneum –> dialysate via diffusion.
  • dialysate with waste products drawn from abdomen and then
    discarded.

BIO (5 decks)

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