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Infectious Disease Flashcards

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1
Q

Prion characteristics, mode of transmission, examples

A
  • Abnormally folded protein, no genetic materials.
  • Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, mad cows disease
  • Ingesting infected brain/nervous tissue, inheriting mutated gene that codes for the infectious prion
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2
Q

What are the characteristics, modes of transmission, and examples of viral diseases?

A
  • Non-cellular, genetic material in form of nucleic acids.
  • HIV/AIDS, COVID-19
  • Direct contact, Indirect via droplets, Vectors
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3
Q

What are the characteristics, modes of transmission, and examples of bacterial infections?

A
  • unicellular prokaryotic
  • Helicobacter pylori causes stomach ulcers, Vibrio cholorae causes cholera
  • directly through close contact with another host, indirectly through contact with contaminated objects
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4
Q

What are the characteristics, modes of transmission, and examples of fungal infections?

A
  • Eukaryotes that have a cell wall
  • dermatophytes causes athletes foot
  • direct contact with diseases person or animal or contaminated object
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5
Q

What are the characteristics, modes of transmission, and examples of protozoan diseases?

A

unicellular eukaryotes, cell membrane but no cell wall. 4 types: flagellates, ciliates, amoebae, sporozoan
- Plasmodium sp. causes malaria, entamoeba histolytic causes amoebic dysentry
- direct contact with a diseases person, animal or contaminated object

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6
Q

What are the characteristics, modes of transmission, and examples of macroparasites?

A
  • multicellular eukaryotesm, endo live inside body and ecto live outside of body
  • Ticks latch onto skin and inject neurotoxic while feeding, helminths are worm-like organisms that often live in gastrointestinal systems
  • direct contact as parasitic arthropods latch onto skin, foeco-oral transmission throug contaminated objects in the environment (infected soil or water)
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7
Q

what are the 3 main modes of transmission?

A
  • direct: physical contact(horizontal+vertical)
  • indirect: contaminated food, water, surfaces objects, airborne, equipment not sterilised
  • vector: usually blood-sucking arthropods that aren’t infected themslves
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8
Q

What are Koch’s postulates?

A
  1. microorganism must be present in all affected animals and absent from healthy ones
  2. microorganism must be able to be isolated from affected host in a pure culture
  3. when newly cultured microorganism is inserted into healthy host, same symptoms must arise
  4. microorganism must be able to be re-isolated from newly affected host and shown to be same pathogen that was isolated initially
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9
Q

What did Louis Pasteur’s swan-neck flask experiment prove?

A

It disproved spontaneous generation and showed that microbes in the air cause contamination, supporting the germ theory of disease.

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10
Q

what factors contribute to risk of infectious diseases?

A

increased human mobility, climate change, antimicrobial/pesticide resistance, loss of genetic diversity

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11
Q

What are the effects of infectious diseases on agricultural production?

A

reduced and low quality yield, loss of trading opportunity, economy damage due to low supply,

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12
Q

what’s an example of a plant diseases that affected Australian agriculture?

A

Panama banana disease
- fungal
- yellowing, wilting leaves, splitting stem, damaged xylem+phloem –> plant starves and dehydrates
-root to root contact or contaminated soil
- banana prices increased, farmers lose property as soil is biohazard

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13
Q

what’s an example of an animal disease that affected Australian agriculture?

A

Sheep footrot
- bacteria: dichelobacter nodosus
- painful abscesses between toes of sheep, goats, cattle, caused weight loss
- indirect via contaminated soil, manure, transporting facilities
- seperation of infected and health animals
- lower wool production+quality

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14
Q

What are the key adaptations of prions for entering and spreading between hosts?What are the key adaptations of viruses for entering and spreading between hosts?

A
  • use other proteins (like meats) to move into gastrointestinal systems, misfolded prions can bind with ferritin present in meat
  • spread via contaminated food and equipment, survive outside of organism then once contact is made the prion enters host
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15
Q

What are the key adaptations of viruses for entering and spreading between hosts?

A
  • viral surface proteins adhere to host cell surface receptors to enter nucleus. once in nucleus the virus’ DNA is replicated
  • virus remain suspended in air or on surfaces for long periods of time, ability to tolerate wide variety of oxygen concentrations. virus’ like HIV can spread sexually or vertically
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16
Q

what are the adaptations of bacteria into and between hosts?

A
  • having pili helps penetrate cell, adhesions on surface of bacteria resist urine, mucus etc, flagellum help move forward, uses macrophages after phagocytosis to pass cell membrane as it has capsule layer to protect it
  • M tuberculosis spread via air-borne transmission as it resists drying out, H pylori spreads via foeco-oral so it induces vomiting and diarrhoea which increases transmission
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17
Q

what are the adaptations of fungi into and between hosts?

A
  • cell wall allows adhesion. some release endospores to weaken immune system
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18
Q

what are the adaptations of protozoan into and between hosts?

A
  • vacuolar membrane protects from lysosomes
  • survives varying environments, forms reservoirs in vectors
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19
Q

What are the adaptations of macroparasites into and between hosts?

A
  • ticks have specialised mouthparts
  • small and flat(hard to spot)
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20
Q

What are examples of passive physical and chemical defences in plants against pathogens?

A
  • cuticles, cell walls, stomata
  • bark, vertical leaves, thorns
  • chemical receptors
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21
Q

What are the key features of the rapid active response of plants, and how does it help protect them from environmental stress or damage?

A
  • oxidative burst
  • apoptosis
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21
Q

What are some examples of delayed active responses in plants, and how do they help plants survive environmental stress?

A

release of lysozyme-like chemicals –> antimicrobial like action+limit spread

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22
Q

How does a named Australian plant respond to an example of a fungal infection?

A
  • Eucalyptus
  • Austropuccinia psidii(myrtle rust)
  • Thick bark, cell walls and waxy leaf cuticles.
  • If infected, the plant can detect fungal effector proteins –> trigger apoptosis, starving the pathogen of nutrients.
  • poses a threat to native species, potentially impacting ecosystems and animals like koalas.
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23
Q

What are the key components of the body’s first line of defense against pathogens?

A

Skin: barrier, remove pathogens.
Mucous membranes: mucus trap pathogens
Cilia: particles out of the respiratory system.
Saliva: enzymes and antimicrobial substances like lysosomes.
Tears: antimicrobial properties, including lysosome.
Urine: Flushes and secretes antimicrobial peptides.
Microbiome: Competes inhibit their growth.

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24
Q

What are the roles of white blood cells (leucocytes) in the adaptive immune responses, and how are they produced?

A
  • B cells: Produce antibodies; form plasma cells and memory B cells.
  • Helper T cells: Release cytokines to activate other immune cells.
  • Cytotoxic T cells: Kill infected or cancerous cells.
  • Memory T cells: Enable quick response to re-infection.
  • Both produced in the bone marrow
  • T -cells go to lymphatic system while B cells mature in bone marrow
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25
Q

What is phagocytosis, and how does it work as part of the second line of defense?

A

Phagocytosis is when phagocytes engulf and destroy pathogens.
- A phagocyte forms around the pathogen.
- The phagocyte fuses with lysosomes.
- Lysosomes release enzymes that break down the pathogen.
- Phagocytes include neutrophils, monocytes, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells.

26
Q

What is inflammation and how does it function as part of the second line of defence?

know at least 2

A
  • Release of cytokines signals infection to the host.
  • Increased blood flow: Capillaries dilate, causing redness, heat, swelling, and pain.
  • Increased vessel permeability: Allows white blood cells to enter tissues and attack pathogens.
  • Clotting activation: Prevents pathogens from entering the bloodstream.
27
Q

How does the body’s second line of defense respond to pathogens with a fever?

A

The body releases pyrogens to raise body temperature, causing a fever.
- Inhibits pathogen growth by inactivating their enzymes and toxins
- Boo sts the immune response by increasing enzyme activity and white blood cell production

28
Q

How do macrophages and lymphocytes use apoptosis to defend against pathogens?

A

Macrophages and lymphocytes surround a pathogen and undergo apoptosis, forming a granuloma. This capsule blocks pathogen movement and nutrient supply, starving and killing the pathogen.

29
Q

How does the lymphatic system contribute to the second line of defence during infections?

A
  • Pathogens enter the lymph fluid, which is filtered by lymph nodes.
  • Lymph nodes remove microbes and debris from the fluid.
  • Swollen lymph nodes indicate an immune response.
  • Changes in lymph nodes can help locate the site of infection
30
Q

How does the innate immune system respond to pathogens?

A
  • Provides non-specific protection against pathogens.
  • Rapid response initiated immediately or within hours of pathogen exposure.
  • No immunological memory.
    First line: physical barriers (e.g., skin)
  • Second line: inflammatory response and phagocytosis.
  • Steps:
    1. Macrophages detect pathogens and release cytokines.
    2. Inflammation increases blood flow to the infection site.
    3. White blood cells move into tissues.
    4. Phagocytosis: pathogens engulfed by phagocytes.
    5. Lysosomes destroy pathogens in the phagosome.
    6. Harmless particles are released.
31
Q

What are the key features of the adaptive immune system?

A
  • Specialized protection when the innate immune response fails.
  • Highly specific: only B and T cells that recognize a pathogen will respond, diverse responses, immunological memory, self-tolerance.
32
Q

What are the functions and characteristics of B cells in the adaptive immune system?

A
  • Mature in the bone marrow.
  • Responsible for the humoral (antibody-mediated) response in blood and tissue fluids.
  • Once activated by antigens, B cells undergo mitosis and differentiate into plasma cells (secretes antibodies that are antigen specific –> immediate protection) and memory B cells (remain in circulation for long-term immunity).
33
Q

What are the main functions and types of T cells in the adaptive immune system?

A
  • Originate in bone marrow, mature in thymus.
  • Responsible for cell-mediated response, effective against intracellular pathogens like viruses, protozoa, cancer cells, fungi and transplanted tissues.
    Types of T cells:
  • Helper T cells: Assist other immune cells, secrete cytokines, and increase macrophage activity.
  • Cytotoxic T cells: Kill infected body cells by triggering apoptosis with cytotoxins.
  • Suppressor T cells: Suppress immune response once infection is defeated.
  • Memory T cells: Provide immunological memory for faster responses upon re-infection.
34
Q

What are the main functions and types of T cells in the adaptive immune system?

A
  • Originate in bone marrow, mature in thymus.
  • Responsible for cell-mediated response, effective against intracellular pathogens like viruses, protozoa, cancer cells, fungi and transplanted tissues.
    Types of T cells:
  • Helper T cells: Assist other immune cells, secrete cytokines, and increase macrophage activity.
  • Cytotoxic T cells: Kill infected body cells by triggering apoptosis with cytotoxins.
  • Suppressor T cells: Suppress immune response once infection is defeated.
  • Memory T cells: Provide immunological memory for faster responses upon re-infection.
35
Q

What are antigens, and how do they relate to the immune response?

A
  • Antigens are molecules recognized as foreign by the body, triggering an immune response.
  • Cells in the body have “self” marker molecules that protect them from immune attack.
  • Pathogens have “non-self” antigens, allowing the immune system to identify and attack them.
  • Organ donors and recipients must have matching antigens to prevent the recipient’s immune system from rejecting the transplant as “non-self.”
36
Q

What are antibodies and their role in the immune response?

A
  • Antibodies (immunoglobulins) are proteins that recognize and bind to specific pathogens.
  • Released by plasma cells during the humoral immune response.
  • Antibodies have antigen-binding sites, matched to their specific antigen, similar to the lock-and-key model in enzymes.
37
Q

Outline the primary immune response.

A
  1. Pathogen is engulfed by an antigen-presenting cell (e.g., macrophage or specific B cells) and its antigens are displayed using an MHC2 marker.
  2. MHC2 marker helps the antigen-presenting cell interact with helper T cells.
  3. Antigen-presenting cells show the pathogen’s antigens to T cells, and the one that binds best is selected.
  4. This selected cell rapidly divides, producing copies that are best suited to fight the antigen.
  5. These cells differentiate into effector cells like plasma and memory B cells, as well as helper, cytotoxic, suppressor, and memory T cells.
38
Q

What are the key steps in the humoral immune response?

A
  1. B cells differentiate into plasma B cells (stay in lymph) and memory B cells (circulate in blood and lymph).
  2. Plasma B cells secrete antibodies specific to the antigen, which travel to the site of infection.
  3. At the infection site, antibody-antigen complexes form, and antibodies remove antigens by:
    a. Neutralisation: Antibodies block antigens from binding to cells, preventing toxins from acting.
    b. Opsonization: Antibodies tag pathogens for easier detection and destruction by phagocytes.
    c. Complement activation: Antibodies trigger pathogen lysis and ingestion by immune cells.
39
Q

What are the key steps in the cell-mediated immune response?

A
  1. Cloned T cells differentiate into helper, memory, suppressor, and cytotoxic T cells.
  2. Memory T cells remain in the body for future infections, and cytotoxic T cells multiply and migrate to the infection site.
  3. Cytotoxic T cells bind to infected cells’ antigens and release chemicals like perforin to destroy infected cells and pathogens.
  4. Released chemicals increase inflammation and attract phagocytes to help clear pathogens and debris.
  5. Suppressor T cells release chemicals to stop cytotoxic T cell activity once the infection is defeated.
40
Q

What happens during primary exposure to a pathogen in the adaptive immune system?

A
  • The first exposure to a pathogen triggers a primary immune response by B and T cells.
  • Plasma cells and cytotoxic T cells specific to the pathogen are produced to clear the infection.
  • Memory cells are stored for future encounters with the same pathogen.
  • The person may become immune to future infections by this pathogen, known as acquired or adaptive immunity.
41
Q

What happens during secondary exposure to a pathogen in the adaptive immune system?

A
  • The initial response takes time and requires experiencing symptoms.
  • Upon secondary exposure, memory B and T cells respond within hours, preventing symptoms.
  • The adaptive immune system’s immunological memory leads to a stronger and faster response with more antibodies.
  • This is called the secondary immune response, explaining why booster vaccinations are recommended.
  • The innate immune response helps by sending cytokines to activate memory B and T cells.
42
Q

What pathogen factors affect the spread of infectious diseases?

A
  • Some pathogens are highly virulent, causing disease even in low numbers, while others require large numbers.
  • Some pathogens have natural reservoirs in food, water, or the environment.
  • Other pathogens are not environmentally resistant and must be transmitted directly from host to host.
43
Q

What host factors affec the spread of an infectious disease?

A

• Any concurrent illness in host may reduce effectiveness in defence systems of the
host.
• The use of certain pharmaceuticals may lower body’s barriers against pathogens,
making it more susceptible to disease.

44
Q

What geographic and social factors may affect the spread of an infectious disease?
name at least two

A

Geographic factors:
- Large environmental reservoirs of pathogens increase outbreak risk.
- Natural disasters cause poor sanitation, increasing waterborne diseases like cholera.
- Some environments preserve pathogens, while isolated regions (mountainous/islands) reduce exposure.
- Overcrowding raises the chance of host-to-host transmission.
- Remote communities with poverty, lack of education, and limited access to vaccines are at higher risk.

Social factors:
- International travel increases disease transmission.
- Cultural beliefs may affect attitudes towards medical advice and practices.
- Mobile populations face higher infection risks.
- Animal husbandry can transmit diseases like avian and swine flu from animals to humans.

45
Q

What factors contribute to the spread of the Influenza virus?
name at least 1 for each factor

A

Pathogen factors:
spreads through droplets from coughing or sneezing, remaining on surfaces and in the air for extended periods –> increases the risk of local spread as individuals can come into contact with contaminated surfaces.
Host factors:
- Individuals over 65 and infants under 2 are more susceptible due to weaker immune systems.
Geographic factors:
- Isolated regions (mountains/islands) reduce exposure to infected individuals.
- Overcrowding increases host-to-host transmission through airborne droplets.
Social factors:
- Limited access to information in developing countries prevents the adoption of hygiene practices like handwashing.
- International travel increases the likelihood of global transmission.
- Cultural beliefs can influence attitudes towards vaccinations, raising infection risks.
- Mobile populations have a higher risk of contracting Influenza.

46
Q

How can personal hygiene help prevent the spread of pathogens?

A

Personal hygiene keeps the body and its openings clean, reducing the risk of pathogens entering or being transmitted to others –> prevents the build-up of microorganisms on the body.
Personal hygiene practices:
- Wash hands with soap before eating and after using the toilet to remove pathogens.
- Regularly wash body, hair, and clean teeth to prevent bacteria buildup.
- Cough or sneeze into a tissue to prevent the spread of airborne droplets.

47
Q

How does community hygiene help prevent the spread of pathogens?

A

Community hygiene prevents the build-up and spread of pathogens in a population, including transmission from person to person or through food.
Community hygiene measures:
- Proper sewage and garbage disposal reduces pathogen numbers and their spread.
- Sterilization and disinfection in hospitals, surgeries, and hairdressers limit the transmission of pathogens.
- Food handling guidelines help prevent the spread of disease through food.
- Testing and treating water minimize pathogen risk and contamination in water sources.

48
Q

What is the role of quarantine and how does it work for animals, plants, and humans?

A

Quarantine restricts the movement of people, plants and animals through ports of entry to minimize the risk of pests and diseases entering a country, protecting agriculture, native species and public health.

  • Animals entering Australia spend 40 days in quarantine to ensure they are disease-free before release.
  • Plants and plant products are examined for pests and diseases, and may be treated to destroy any potential threats before entering the country.
  • Humans may be isolated for several days to monitor for disease symptoms.
  • Aircraft are sprayed with insecticide, and mosquito-trapping programs at airports help detect and eliminate any mosquitoes that could carry diseases.
49
Q

What is the difference between vaccination and immunisation?

A
  • Vaccination is the introduction of a vaccine into the body –> primes the immune system to recognize and combat a pathogen it has never been exposed to before
  • Immunisation is the process where the body responds to the vaccine, producing memory cells –> immunity, ensuring a faster and stronger secondary response if the antigen is encountered again.
50
Q

What is active acquired immunity and how does is it achieved?

A
  • Active acquired immunity occurs when the immune response produces memory cells.
  • It can be:
    • Naturally induced: through infection, where the body experiences symptoms and produces memory cells.
    • Artificially induced: through vaccination, which triggers memory cell production without causing symptoms.
  • Vaccines contain weakened or dead microorganisms with antigens that cause the immune response.
  • Upon future exposure, a secondary response destroys the pathogen before symptoms appear.
  • Immunity is usually lifelong, but booster vaccinations are required over time to strengthen the immune response.
  • Each booster increases the number of memory cells, ensuring long-term protection.
51
Q

What is herd immunity and how does it protect a population?

A
  • Herd immunity occurs when a majority of the population is immune to a disease, indirectly protecting those who are not immune.
  • Immune individuals act as a barrier, reducing the likelihood of disease transmission.
  • Vulnerable groups, like newborns or unvaccinated individuals, are safer because the disease cannot spread easily.
  • With herd immunity, the entire community, including unvaccinated people, is protected from epidemics as the disease spread is controlled.
52
Q

How do public health campaigns help reduce the spread of disease?
give a named example

A
  • Public health campaigns raise awareness and educate communities about disease prevention.
  • They provide information on disease causes and impacts, promoting healthier choices and better health practices.
  • Public immunisation programs, like those for childhood diseases (diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, measles, mumps, rubella), help prevent disease spread.
  • Example: Ending HIV campaign encourages frequent testing, early treatment and safe practices to reduce HIV/AIDS transmission.
53
Q

What are the benefits and disadvantages of using pesticides to control the spread of disease?

A

Benefits:
- Pesticides kill pests and vectors that transmit pathogens, reducing disease occurrence and controlling spread.
Disadvantages:
- Pests and pathogens can develop resistance, reducing pesticide effectiveness and increasing the need for stronger chemicals.
- Pesticides can have harmful environmental effects.

54
Q

How does genetic engineering help prevent the spread of disease?
give one example

A
  • Genetic engineering alters an organism’s genetic composition, making it resistant to diseases.
  • Disease-resistant plants and animals reduce disease occurrence in individuals and control the spread within populations.
  • Transgenic animals can be engineered to produce proteins that grant disease resistance, which can be extracted for use.
  • Example: Genetically modified (GM) mosquitoes using CRISPR-Cas9 to remove the host factor gene, preventing the malaria parasite from surviving in the mosquito, thus reducing transmission.
55
Q

How do antiviral medications work and what are they used for?

A
  • Antiviral medications control viral infections by inhibiting virus development inside infected cells, allowing the body’s immune system to take over.
  • They help stop the spread of viral diseases and are useful in controlling epidemics and pandemics.
  • Common viruses targeted include HIV, influenza A, herpes, and hepatitis B and C.
  • Antivirals bind to and block viral molecules essential for the viral life cycle, preventing replication without killing host cells.
    Combination therapy: targeting different stages of the virus life cycle, can enhance the effectiveness of treatment.
56
Q

How does antiviral resistance affect treatment and the immune system?

A
  • Antiviral resistance occurs when a virus evolves, making antiviral medications ineffective, as they no longer produce the desired outcome.
  • Antivirals act as a selection pressure, allowing resistant virus strains to survive, reducing the drug’s efficacy.
  • Viral mutations complicate the adaptive immune system’s response by altering viral antigens.
  • Clonal selection produces B and T cells specific to viral antigens, but mutations mean immune cells may no longer recognize the virus.
  • The immune system must constantly adapt, as the virus evolves, staying one step ahead of the immune response.
57
Q

How are antibiotics used to be most effective?

A
  • Antibiotics control bacterial infections by either killing bacteria or slowing their growth. They are ineffective against viruses.
  • Antibiotics target bacterial metabolic activities, like cell wall and protein synthesis, which viruses do not have –> disrupts bacteria’s ability to reproduce and function.
    Antibiotics are most effective when:
  • Used only for bacterial infections, not viral infections.
  • Chosen to target the specific pathogen.
  • Able to reach the site of infection and eliminate the bacteria.
  • The full course is taken to reduce the risk of bacterial resistance.
58
Q

What causes antibiotic resistance?

A
  • Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria evolve to survive antibiotic treatments, making the medication ineffective.
  • Natural variation and mutations within bacterial populations lead to some bacteria being resistant to antibiotics.
  • Antibiotics kill most bacteria, but resistant bacteria survive and reproduce, creating a population with increased resistance.
  • Over time, this results in the antibiotic becoming ineffective, as it can no longer kill the resistant bacteria.
59
Q

How effective were environmental and quarantine methods using a named example.

A

Environmental Management Methods:
- Separate facilities with strict infection control:
-Effective; reduced transmission by isolating EVD patients and ensuring proper sanitation, hygiene, and waste management.
- Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
- Crucial; provided a physical barrier against blood, bodily fluids, and infectious materials, reducing the spread of EVD.
- Disinfection of contaminated surfaces:
- Effective; cleaning with 0.5% chlorine solution sterilized surfaces and protected hospital staff, preventing further spread of the virus.
- Allocated burial sites for infected bodies:
- Effective; limited contact with contagious bodies, reducing the risk of post-mortem transmission.
Quarantine Methods:
- Isolation of patients in single rooms or spaced 3 meters apart:
- Effective; minimized contact with infected bodily fluids, preventing further spread and promoting recovery.
- Same clinical staff assigned to single patients:
- Effective; reduced exposure by limiting the number of people interacting with infected patients.
- Monitoring exposed individuals for 21 days:
- Crucial; allowed time for symptoms to develop and prevented potential spread if the person was infected.
- Border checkpoints to control movement:
- Effective; contained EVD within specific regions, reducing the risk of regional and global transmission.

60
Q

How does population mobility affect the spread and containment of disease?

A
  • Population mobility is key in assessing disease outbreaks, as it influences both the spread and containment of diseases.
  • Humans can carry pathogens and spread diseases to new locations as they move.
  • Monitoring movement within a country (e.g., between Australian states) and international travel helps track potential disease spread.
  • Higher mobility increases the likelihood of introducing diseases to new populations, leading to higher incidence and prevalence of the disease.
61
Q

How do population mobility and urbanization affect the spread of one named disease?

A
  • Mobility of the population, especially international travel by plane and boat, is monitored as it plays a key role in the spread of mosquito-borne diseases like Malaria
  • Rapid urbanization and poor sewerage systems create breeding grounds for mosquitoes, increasing the incidence and prevalence of these diseases.
62
Q

What are some historical and current strategies used to control the spread of diseases?
give 1 application example for both

A

Historical strategies:
- 1423 Italy: The first permanent plague hospital was opened for leprosy patients, using a natural barrier to isolate them from populated areas.
- 1849: Dr. John Snow mapped cholera cases and identified a contaminated water pump as the outbreak source, highlighting the importance of tracking disease sources.
- Late 1890s: Vaccines were developed for cholera and typhoid fever, laying the groundwork for vaccines against diseases like HIV and malaria.
- 2014 Ebola outbreak: Educating the public to abandon traditional practices involving close contact with corpses helped control the outbreak.
Cultural strategies:
- Cleopatra: Used mosquito nets to avoid malaria, even though the connection with mosquitoes wasn’t known.
- Aboriginal bush medicine: Used native Australian flora for disease treatment, passed down through a sacred connection to the land.
- Philippines: Traditional foods like garlic and onions are believed to lower blood pressure, and modern research supports these benefits.
Current strategies:
- Epidemiology: Used to predict and control both infectious and non-infectious diseases.
- Medications: Development of antivirals and antibiotics to control disease spread.
- Recombinant DNA vaccines: Used to create vaccines (e.g., Hepatitis B) to reduce incidence and prevent spread.
- Computer models: Simulate outbreak scenarios to develop rapid response plans for epidemics and pandemics.
- Tracking apps: Trace the path of infection to help control disease spread.

63
Q

What are the roles of white blood cells (leucocytes) in the adaptive immune responses, and how are they produced?

A
  • Neutrophils: Engulf and destroy pathogens.
  • Macrophages: Engulf pathogens, act as antigen-presenting cells (APCs).
  • Dendritic cells: Capture and present antigens to activate T cells.
  • Natural Killer cells: Destroy virus-infected and cancer cells.

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