Next Step Psych/Soc Vocab Flashcards
1
Q
Need based theories of motivation
A
Most common: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: physiology, safety and security, love and friendship, self-esteem and achievement, self actualization
2
Q
Social reproduction
A
The process of transmitting social inequality to the next generation. Based on differences in financial capital, cultural capital, human capital, and social capital.
3
Q
Attitudes, components
A
A positive or negative feeling towards something or someone. Consists of Emotion (I like wine); Behavior (I will drink wine if offered); Cognition (I know red wine is good for my heart).
4
Q
Variable interval
A
Reinforcement after the first response, after a variable amount of time has elapsed (e.g. after a food pellet is dispensed, there is some changing period of time during which no food pellets will be dispensed. After that time is up, the first level press will get a food pellet.)
5
Q
Avoidance Learning
A
A behavior that prevents a negative stimulus (e.g. pressing a lever before the noise starts keeps it silent)
6
Q
Identity
A
A person’s sense of and expression of their group affiliations and individuality
7
Q
Dramaturgical approach
A
A perspective on sociology that focuses on the context of human behavior rather than the causes, viewing everyday social interactions as a form of performance in which people are playing roles
8
Q
Vestibular sense
A
The labyrinth of the inner ear provides a sense of spatial orientation, sense of balance, and sense of movement
9
Q
Ovaries
A
Sex organ of the female that releases: progesterone, estrogens (mainly estradiol), inhibin
10
Q
Fixed interval
A
Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (e.g. a food pellet after every 5 lever presses)
11
Q
James-Lange theory
A
Emotions start as physiological states in the body and emotions are reactions to those bodily responses
12
Q
Self-concept
A
The set of beliefs one has about who one is (gender roles, sexuality, racial identity, personal characteristics, etc.)
13
Q
Neurotransmitters
A
Chemicals used to send signals across a synapse between a neuron and the target cell. Include amino acids, monoamines, peptides, and others (adenosine, acetylcholine, nitric oxide, etc.)
14
Q
Prestige
A
A positive esteem of a person or group
15
Q
Functionalism
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A large-scale sociological approach that analyzes particular social structures and functions that influence society as a whole
16
Q
Heuristics in problem solving
A
A quick way to solve a problem using experience when a full exhaustive search would be impossible. Generates results that may not be the best. (e.g. rule of thumb, educated guess, intuition, common sense, stereotypes)
17
Q
Kohlberg stages
A
Stages that represent an individual’s ability to reason through ethical and moral questions. Relate not to the outcome (decision made), but the process by which an individual thinks about ethical questions 1. Pre-conventional: obedience and punishment, self-interest 2. Conventional: conformity, authority obedience 3. Post-conventional: Universal ethical principles
18
Q
Olfactory pathway
A
Nose, olfactory epithelium, olfactory receptor, olfactory nerve (part of the CNS), olfactory bulb, brain (piriform cortex, amygdala)
19
Q
Body Dysmorphic Disorder
A
Somatoform disorder in which the patient has excessive concern with a perceived defect or deficiency in their body
20
Q
Social loafing
A
Phenomenon of individuals putting in less effort when working in groups
21
Q
Social facilitation
A
The presence of other people will increase performance on familiar tasks but reduce performance on unfamiliar ones
22
Q
Alzheimer’s Disease
A
Most common form of dementia. No cure, develops with age and worsens as it progresses, eventually fatal. Starts with simple absent-mindedness, then deepening confusion and eventual debilitating cognitive deficits.
23
Q
Front stage vs. back stage
A
Front stage: how a person behaves when an audience is present, adhering to certain conventions for the audience Back stage: how a person behaves when no audience is present
24
Q
Psychoanalytic perspective on personality
A
Personality is developed by early childhood experiences and influenced by the unconscious part of the mind. Freud said personality develops through psychosexual stages
25
Hair cells
Sensory receptors in the organ of Corti on the basilar membrane. Located in the cochlea of the inner ear. The hairs detect sound as vibrations in the tectorial membrane
26
Foot in the door phenomenon
Getting someone to agree to a small request increases the likelihood they will then agree to a much larger one
27
Residential segregation
The physical separation of different groups into neighborhoods, typically along race, ethnic, or income criteria
28
Sleep disorders
Medical disorder of sleep patterns. (e.g. insomnia, narcolepsy, night terrors, sleep apnea, sleepwalking, enuresis)
29
Unconditioned stimuli
A natural stimulus that provokes a response with no learning at all. (e.g. food is an unconditioned stimulus for salivation)
30
Subcultures
A group of people within a culture that differentiate themselves from the larger cultures
31
Fertility
The average number of expected children born to a woman assuming that the woman will survive from birth to the end of her reproductive life
32
Piaget's stages
Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational
33
Innate behaviors
Instinctive behavior that occurs in the absence of any learning or experience. Can be simple or fairly complex behavior
34
Vicarious emotions
When an observer feels the same emotion that someone being observed would feel (e.g. feeling embarrassment when someone else commits a social faux pas)
35
Elaboration likelihood model
A process of persuasion in which attitudes are influenced both by high elaboration factors (e.g. evaluating and processing information), the 'central route', and low elaboration ones (e.g. the attractiveness of the person making the appeal), the 'peripheral route')
36
Shaping
Rewarding a series of small behaviors that are a part of the overall behavior desired in order to create larger behavior which would likely never occur on its own
37
Parkinson's disease
Degenerative disease. Motor difficulties due to death of dopamine-generating cells in the substantia nigra of the midbrain
38
Social cognitive theory
Some portion of people's learning occurs not through direct behavior, but by observing the consequences of the behavior of others
39
Emotion Components
Cognition: evaluation of events Physiology: bodily responses Motivation: motor responses an emotion generates Expression: facial and vocal signals of the feeling Feelings: subjective experience of the emotion (3 main: physiological, cognitive, behavioral)
40
Primary reinforcement
A stimulus that an organism desires with no learning (e.g. food, water)
41
Marginalization
The social exclusion in which individuals or groups are systematically barred from normal opportunities in a society (work, housing, health care, legal services)
42
Cognitive theories of motivation
Motivation is based on cognitive process. For example, to reduce cognitive dissonance, or in goal-setting theory to reach a particular end state. Focuses on our rationale and decision-making abilities
43
Hypothalamus
Portion of the brain connected to the endocrine system. Produces: dopamine, growth hormone releasing hormone, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, somatostatin, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, corticotropin-releasing hormone, oxytocin, vasopressin
44
Social stratification
A hierarchy of classes of people based on differences in power or privilege. It carries from generation to generation, is present in all societies, and includes beliefs
45
Mood disorders
Depression and bipolar disorder. Disturbance in a person's underlying mood is the main feature of the disorder
46
Memory encoding
Process of turning sense information into information in the brain (memory) that can later be recalled (e.g. remember what something looks like)
47
Meritocracy
Political philosophy that holds that power should accrue to individuals demonstrating merit as measured by achievement or intellectual talent
48
Eysenck's three factor model
Model of personality based on activity of reticular formation and limbic system. Personality made up of: 1. Extraversion 2. Neuroticism 3. Psychoticism
49
Vygotsky and development
Theorized that play is essential in a child's development. Children learn symbolic play (using a stick to pretend it's a horse) and learn social rules through play (e.g. playing house to stimulate acceptable social interactions)
50
Group polarization
Groups tend to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial attitudes of the individual members
51
Schizophrenia
Mental disorder involving delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, lack of emotion and lack of motivation
52
Intuition in problem solving
The ability to have knowledge or solve a problem without rational inference or reasoning. Subjects typically don't know the process by which they have the intuitive judgment. Associated with the right brain.
53
Learning theory of language development
Language is learned from the environment (not based on inherent biological systems) in some manner similar to operant condition. Various theories about what that manner is
54
Conflict Theory
A variety of approaches to sociology that focus on inequality between social groups and the power differentials that exist between them. Most strongly associated with Karl Marx.
55
Cultural capital
Non-economic assets that provide value to an individual and that can promote social mobility (e.g. education, dress, attractiveness, humor)
56
Norms
Socially held beliefs about appropriate behavior
57
Prejudice
Having a positive or negative view of a person or thing prior to experience with that person or thing. Typically towards people based on some group affiliation. Often unreasonable and difficult to change
58
Gestalt princples
Laws of perceptual organization that guide the brain in making a whole out of sensory parts
59
Attraction
A process between two people which draws them together and leads to friendship and romance.
60
Peripheral route processing
A process of shaping attitudes that depend on the environmental characteristics of the message (attractiveness of the speaker, catchy slogan, seeming expertise). Useful when the idea is essentially weak or the audience unable or unwilling to work to evaluate the merits of the idea
61
Social cognitive perspective on personality
Personality is developed through observational learning, situational influences, cognitive processes. Focuses on self-efficacy
62
Pineal gland
Portion of the brain that secretes melatonin
63
Classical conditioning
A form of learning that pairs neutral stimuli with natural stimuli in which the learner is able to pair this neutral stimuli with the response normally given to the natural stimuli (ring a bell and a dog salivates)
64
Social capital
The value of a social network. Collective or economic benefits that result from cooperation between people and groups
65
Biological Perspective of Personality
Personality reflects the functioning of physiological processes in the brain. Influenced by hormone levels, neurotransmitter levels, size and development of various brain structures. Associated with Eysenck's Three Factor Model
66
Privilege
A set of unearned advantages accruing to someone owing to membership in a group (e.g. male privilege in China under the one-child policy resulted in infanticide of female offspring)
67
Circadian rhythm
A built-in rhythm of an organism that is roughly 24 hours long but can adjust to external stimuli. Present in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria
68
Discrimination
When an animal learns to respond to one conditioned stimulus but gives either a different response or no response at all to a slightly different stimulus
69
Absolute Poverty
Deprivation of basic human needs including access to food, water, shelter, safety. Was set to $1.25/day in 2005 by the World Bank.
70
Social constructionism
A theory that people construct their sense of reality and meaning through interaction with others, most powerfully through language
71
Sensitivity index
A measure of how easily a signal can be detected. Estimated as d'=Hit Rate - False Alarm Rate
72
Stereotype threat
Anxiety that one will fulfill a negative stereotype causing decreased performance
73
Behaviorist Perspective of Personality
Personality is a learning process of operant conditioning controlled by the environment. People have response tendencies which create behavior patterns. Childhood not the crucial period as the environment-based learning continues through life.
74
Train perspective of personality
Personality is made up of a number of traits that are heavily influenced by biology. Various theories. "Big Five" theory: 1. Openness (to experience) 2. Conscientiousness 3. Extraversion 4. Agreeableness 5. Neuroticism
75
Adrenal Medulla
Gland just above the kidneys that releases: epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, enkephalin.
76
Neural plasticity
Changes in neural pathways and synapses that occur in response to experience. Can be a change on the level of a single cell or remapping entire chunks of the cortex
77
Aggression
Acts carried out either with an intention to cause harm or to increase relative social dominance.
78
Stigma
Social disapproval. Usually based on overt external deformities, personality deviations, or membership in an unfavored group (e.g. antisemitism)
79
Meditation
One of a number of practices meant to induce a mode of consciousness in which the person focuses on an aspect of awareness, emotion, or sense of well-being
80
Cerebellum
Coordination, precision, timing of movement (gait, posture, complex tasks like typing or playing the piano)
81
Limbic system
Collection of brain structures involved with emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, smell. Includes hippocampus, amygdala, fornix, mamillary body, etc.
82
Somatosensation
Sensory system through the skin, muscles, bones, joints, etc. Processes proprioception, touch, thermoception, nociception
83
Positive reinforcement
A stimulus delivered to increase a behavior (e.g. a food pellet to encourage pressing a lever)
84
Acquisition
The phase of conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus and the animal is learning to give a conditioned response.
85
Somatoform disorders
Mental disorder that creates physical symptoms that cannot be explained by an actual medical condition. Includes conversion, somatization, hypochondriasis, body dysmorphic disorder, pain disorder
86
Preoperational stage
Piaget stage 2: 2-7 yrs. Child can speak, imagine symbolically, but not carry out mental operations
87
Drive reduction theory
Motivation results from an organism's desire to reduce a drive (hunger, thirst, sex)
88
Signal detection theory
A mathematical theory for measuring how sensitive people are in spotting stimuli correctly and rejecting false signals correctly
89
Ingroup
Any group that a person psychologically identifies as their own
90
Deindividuation
When an individual loses a sense of self-awareness when in a group.
91
Freud stages of psychosexual identity development
Oral: 0-1 yr, oral fixation is a passive immature personality, nail-biting, smoking, thumb-sucking Anal: 1-3 yr, anal fixation is obsessively neat/organized personality, or reckless, careless, and disorganized Phallic: 3-6 yr, fixation can by oedipus complex (boys & girls), Electra complex (girls) Latency: 6-12 yr, fixation leads to sexual unfulfillment Genital: puberty-death, fixation leads to frigidity, impotence
92
Neutral stimuli
A stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention attention (e.e. a noise made by a clicker in dog training)
93
Conformity
Matching behavior to social norms as a result of direct or unconscious pressure. Conforming behavior occurs both in groups and while alone.
94
Conditioned stimuli
A neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimuus and comes to elicit the response. (e.g. the bell before the food)
95
Mirror neurons
Neurons that fire when an animal exhibits a behavior and when it observes another carrying out that same behavior, as if the observer were the one acting. Present in both motor and sensory cortical areas
96
Locus of control
The extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them
97
Hypnosis
A mental state in which the subject is focused intensely on particular thought or memory while being more open to suggestion
98
Operant conditioning
Conditioning in which behaviors are shaped by their consequences (rather than their antecedents as in classical conditioning). It uses reinforcement and punishment to change behavior, whereas classical conditioning shapes reflexive behavior
99
Assimilation
Process of one culture or language beginning to resemble that of another group
100
Cultural relativism
An attempt to study societies while minimizing ethnocentric bias
101
Conditional Reinforcement
A stimulus that an organism learns to desire due to its pairing with another reinforcer (e.g. money or a clicker noise in dog training)
102
Feature detection
Specialized nerve cells in the brain respond to particular features such as edges, angles, or movement. These feature detection neurons fire in response to images that have specific characteristics
103
Social identity
The part of a person's identity that comes from their sense of membership in some social group
104
Anterior Pituitary
Gland that releases: growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, beta-endorphin, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin.
105
Nativist theory of language development
Language acquisition must be biologically dependent on the native capacity of the human brain (theories linked most commonly to Chomsky)
106
Variable ratio
Reinforcement after changing number of responses (e.g. a food pellet after a changing number of lever presses)
107
Formal operational stage
Piaget stage 4: age 11 onwards. Can do hypothetical and deductive reasoning and think about abstract concepts
108
Bystander Effect
The more individuals are present, the less likely someone will offer help
109
Intelligence
Many different definitions (one general ability vs. many different "types" of intelligence) that generally relate to problem-solving ability, abstract thinking, and ability to learn from experience
110
Morbidity
Number of people in ill health per unit time, usually give per 1000 people per year
111
Brainstem
Part of the CNS that connects the spinal cord to the brain. Medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain (mesencephalon). Regulates the CNS, controls sleep cycle, heart rate, breathing, eating, etc.
112
Divided attention
The ability of the brain to perform multiple tasks at once (such as driving a car and talking on the phone). The brain has limited attention resources and as multiple tasks are added, especially in the same modality (listening to the radio and listening to a conversation), performance drops
113
Schachter-Singer theory
Emotions depend on physiological arousal and cognitive label. People use their environment or experience to label why they feel the physiological stimulation they do
114
Psychological disorders, categories
Anxiety, somatoform, mood, schizophrenia, dissociative, personality
115
Conversion disorder
Somatoform disorder in which a patient suffers numbness, blindness, or paralysis with no identifiable medical cause
116
Nociception
Sensation of pain triggered by mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimuli above a threshold
117
Incidence rate
Total number of newly appearing cases of a disease per unit time, usually given as a proportion (e.g. 5 per 1000, or 0.045%, or 1 in 100,000)
118
Memory types
Topographic memory, flashbulb memory, declarative memory (explicit memory), procedural memory (implicit memory)
119
Reference group
A group against which an individual (or other group) is compared. It provides benchmarks against which the traits of an individual can compare herself, either by comparison or by contrast
120
Ethnocentrism
The process of judging another culture by the values and standards of your own culture
121
Language, brain areas
Wernicke's area: temporal lobe, ability to comprehend speech Broca's area: frontal lobe, speech production
122
Anxiety Disorders
Excessive anxiety or fear. Includes Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Phobias, Panic, OCD, PTSD
123
Sensory adaptation
A form of neural adaptation in which the sensory system stops responding to a constant stimulus
124
Modelling
Process of learning through imitation of others. "Modelling" can refer to the actions of the person demonstrating the behavior, or the behavior of the learner
125
Voluntary movement control
Posterior part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex
126
Cerebrum
Uppermost part of the brain including the cerebral cortex (frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe) and subcortical structures (hippocampus, basal ganglia, olfactory bulb); Arises from prosencephalon (forebrain); Controls all voluntary actions of the body (with assistance of cerebellum)
127
Urbanization
The process of shifting a population from rural to urban settings, most common in developing countries. By 2010, more than half of the world's population had shifted to urban environments
128
Erikson stages of psychosocial identity development
0-2 yrs, Hopes, Trust vs. Mistrust 2-4 yrs, Will, Autonomy vs. Shame 4-5 yrs, Purpose, Initiative vs. Guilt 5-12 yrs, Competence, Industry vs. Inferiority 13-19 yrs, Fidelity, Identity vs. Role Confusion 20-39, Love, Intimacy vs. Isolation 40-64 yrs, Care, Generativity vs. Stagnation 65-death, Wisdom, Ego Integrity vs. Despair
129
Globalization
Interconnection and interdependence across national boundaries, involving the exchange of culture, ideas, goods, etc.
130
Prevalence rate
Total number of people with a given disease at a given point in time, usually given as a proportion (5 per 1,000, or 0.045%, or 1 in 100,000)
131
Punishment
A consequence that causes a behavior to occur less frequently
132
Institutional discrimination
Unjust discriminatory treatment of a group by formal organizations such as governments, public interactions, and corporations. Typically codified into set rules (e.g. racial segregation laws)
133
Self-esteem
The cognitive and emotional evaluation a person has of their own worth
134
Role taking
3-6 yrs: Egocentric role taking, can't distinguish own perspective from others 6-8 yrs: Subjective role taking, child can tell that others will have different views based on different information 8-10 yrs: Self-reflective role taking, child understands that others have different values 10-12 yrs: Mutual role taking, child simultaneously considers his own view and differing views of others 12+ yrs: societal role taking, child now considers social and cultural effects on views
135
Demographic shift
The increase in the median age of a country due to rising life expectancy and/or reduced birth rate. Has happened in nearly every country in the world as it becomes more economically developed
136
Endocrine organs
Hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal medulla, testes, ovaries
137
Environmental justice
The effort to fairly distribute environmental benefits (clean water, parkland) and environmental burdens (industrial facilities, pollution) across all of society
138
Escape learning
A behavior stops a negative stimulus (e.g. silencing an obnoxious noise to encourage a lever press)
139
Relative poverty
Income below some proportion of the median income. Thus poverty is relative to the society one is in.
140
Testes
Sex organ of the male that releases: androgens (mainly testosterone) from Leydig cells, estradiol and inhibin from Sertoli cells
141
Dissociative disorders
Mental disorders involving breakdown in memory, awareness, and identity. Includes dissociative identity disorder (formerly multiple personality disorder), dissociative amnesia, and depersonalization disorder
142
Peer pressure
A pressure change attitudes, values, or behaviors to conform to group norms
143
Self-efficacy
A belief in one's own ability to achieve goals
144
Mortality
Number of deaths per unit time, usually given per 1000 people per year
145
Altruism
Acting for the good of other at one's own expense and with no expectation of benefit
146
Depression
A low mood that leaves subject feeling sad, hopeless, worried. Characterized by disruptions to sleep and eating and loss of pleasure
147
Cognitive dissonance
Mental discomfort when someone holds two contradictory beliefs at once
148
Interactionist theory of language development
Language is acquired through social interaction with adults. Emphasizes the role of feedback and reinforcement. Requires modeling of adults
149
Self-fulfilling prophecy in stereotypes
A person's behavior can change to fit a stereotype if the person believes it themselves. For example, a stereotype that Asians are good at math can lead an Asian student to work exceptionally hard to excel in a math class
150
Extinction
When the conditioned stimulus stops generating a conditioned response
151
Weber's Law
States that the ability to distinguish between two physical stimuli depends on a proportional increase in that stimulus (heavier of two masses, louder of two sounds, etc.). For example, a personal can tell one mass is heavier than another if there is a 10% difference between them.
152
Concrete operational stage
Piaget Stage 3: 7-11 yrs. Child can solve problems in a logical fashion. Can begin to understand induction, but still have trouble with deduction
153
Thyroid
Gland in the neck which releases: calcitonin, thyroxine, triiodothyronine
154
Visual pathway
Eye, optic nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, thalamus, visual cortex (occipital lobe)
155
Incentive theory
Motivation is based on external incentives rather than internal drives. People's varying behaviors result from the different incentives in their environment and the differing values they place on those incentives
156
Diencephalon
Region of embryonic neural tube that leads to the thalamus, subthalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus
157
Korsakoff's syndrome
Neurological disorder due to lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) associated with chronic alcoholism. Involves memory loss, invented memories, lack of insight, and apathy
158
Universal emotions
Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise (one more?)
159
Stress
The body's response to an environmental stressor or challenge. Triggers the sympathetic nervous system
160
Groupthink
A breakdown in decision making in which groups value coherence and loyalty to the in group over critical analysis of the decisions
161
Cannon-Bard Theory
Emotional expression is hypothalamic, emotional feeling is dorsal thalamus. Physiology and subjective feeling are independent. Physiological arousal does not have to precede subjective feeling of emotion.
162
Stereotypes
An idea about a particular group of people which may or may not accurately reflect reality. Cognitive in nature. (as opposed to prejudice which is emotional and discrimination which is behavioral)
163
Symbolic interactionism
A microsociological approach that analyses behavior - people behave towards the environment based on the meaning they ascribe to things, and that sense of meaning is based on social interaction and individual interpretation
164
Personality disorders
Mental disorders involving an enduring set of behaviors or cognitions that cause distress or disability. Includes paranoid, antisocial, borderline, narcissistic, avoidant, obsessive-compulsive
165
Deviance
Actions that violate social norms, either explicit rules (e.g. committing a crime) or informal mores (e.g. being atheist in a religious society)
166
Negative reinforcement
A stimulus withdrawn to increase a behavior (e.g. silencing an obnoxious noise to encourage pressing a lever)
167
Humanistic perspective on personality
Personality develops as a person grows psychologically. Emphasizes free will and self-actualization. Associated with Maslow's hierarchy of needs
168
Kinesthetic sense
Sense of the position of body parts relative to one another
169
Socialization
The process of acquiring and transmitting cultural norms and customs, developing the social skills for a person to participate in society
170
Multiculturalism
Communities with multiple distinct cultures. Also the ideology that promotes diversity as opposed to assimilation (e.g. publishing official gov't communications in multiple languages)
171
Generalization
When a new stimulus that is similar to a conditioned stimulus comes to generate the same or similar response
172
Reflex arc
Neural pathway in which afferent nerve synapses with efferent nerve in the spinal cord, generating a response while the signal is still being sent up to the brain
173
Selective attention
The ability of the brain to focus on a single input and "tune out" other stimuli. "Cocktail party effect"
174
Fundamental attribution error
Overvaluing a personality-based explanation rather than environmental explanations. For example, explaining that members of an ethnic group must be poor because they are all lazy, rather than environmental impediments to their ability to get out of poverty
175
Pheromones
Chemical secreted or excreted by an animal to trigger a social response from others. Includes alarm, food, and sex pheromones
176
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget's Stage 1: Infants, toddlers. Knowledge through senses and manipulating objects
177
Peripheral nervous system
Nerves and ganglia outside the brain/spinal cord. Divided into somatic and autonomic systems
178
Inclusive fitness
The ability of an organism to increase its fitness by behaving altruistically to support group members that share its genes. (e.g. a worker honey bee surrenders any possibility of reproducing itself but supporting the hive increases inclusive fitness and the reproduction of its genes through the queen)
179
Conditioned response
A response to a conditioned stimulus which usually mimics an unconditioned response. (e.g. salivating in response to food is an unconditioned response; salivating in response to a bell is a conditioned response)
180
Central Route Processing
A method of shaping attitudes that asks the audience to think more, to analyze the content of the message. Depends on the cognitive ability and motivation of the audience. High motivation --\> deep processing --\> persuasion towards message and lasting change
181
Unconditioned response
A natural response that happens with no learning at all (e.g. salivation in response to food)
182
Biases
Cognitive or motivational forces that result in repeated, systematic deviations from rational judgment. (e.g. availability heuristic, congruence bias, outcome bias)
183
Consciousness altering drugs
Drugs that cross the blood-brain barrier to have an effect on the central nervous system. Common categories: anxiolytics, euphoriants, stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens
184
Spontaneous recovery
After a behavior has extinguished, a conditioned stimulus may once again elicit a conditioned response after a rest period
185
Individual discrimination
Treatment of one individual by another in a way that is worse than a normal social interaction owing to some group affiliation. (e.g. charging a higher rate for a cleaning service for a customer in an ethnic minority because "they're messier people")
186
Attachment Theory
Study of long-term relationships, especially between infants and their primary caregiver. Includes several attachment patterns: secure, anxious, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized.
187
Parallel processing
The ability of the brain to process multiple things at once, such as in vision where color, motion, shape, and depth are all processed simultaneously to help the brain identify visual stimulus
188
Attribution Theory
A process of explaining what happens by attributing causes to the environment, or attributing certain thoughts of feelings to other people
189
Brain study methods
Electrophysiology (EEG), Neuroimaging (PET, fMRI), Effects of brain damage (strokes)
190
Auditory Pathway
Outer ear, auditory canal, tympanic membrane, middle ear (malleus, incus, stapes), inner ear (cochlea), Organ of Corti, Vestibulocochlear nerve, thalamus, temporal lobe
191
Stages of sleep
Stage 1: Drowsy sleep, transition from alpha to theta waves Stage 2: Conscious awareness gone, theta waves Stage 3: Slow-wave sleep/Deep sleep, delta waves REM: dreaming, muscle paralysis
