Neuroscience - Biological Properties and Concepts

Question 1

What does acesodyne (uh-ses-uh-dahyn) mean?

Answer 1

mitigating or relieving pain

Question 2

What does antibiosis (an-tee-bahy-oh-sis) mean?

Answer 2

An antagonistic association between organisms to the detriment of one of them or between one organism and a metabolic product of another.

Question 3

What does cerebral (suh-ree-bruh l) mean?

Answer 3

Relating to the cerebrum or the brain.

Question 4

What does autosomal (adjective: aw-tuh-sō-məl) mean?

Answer 4

Pertaining to a chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. People normally have 22 pairs of autosomes (44 autosomes) in each cell, together with 2 sex chromosomes, X and Y in a male and X and X in a female.

Question 5

In the context of biology, what does dominant mean?

Answer 5

Not recessive.

Question 6

What does familial (fuh-mil-yuh l) mean?

Answer 6

A disease appearing in individuals by heredity and occurring in or affecting members of a family more than would be expected by chance.

Question 7

What does arteriopathy (ar·tir·e·op·a·thy) mean?

Answer 7

A disease of the arteries

Question 8

What does angiopathy (an·gi·op·a·thy) mean?

Answer 8

A disease of the blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries)

Question 9

What does arterial (ahr-teer-ee-uh l) mean?

Answer 9

Arterial means pertaining to the blood in the pulmonary vein, in the left side of the heart, and in most arteries, having been oxygenated during its passage through the lungs and being normally bright red.

Question 10

What does pathogenic (path·o·gen·ic) mean?

Answer 10

Capable of causing disease.

Question 11

What does cortical (kawr-ti-kul l) mean?

Answer 11

Relating to the outer layer of the cerebrum.

Question 12

What does subcortical (suhb-kawr-ti-kuh l) mean?

Answer 12

Relating to the outer layer of the cerebrum.

Question 13

What does infarct (in-fahrkt) or infarction (in-fahrk-shuh n) mean?

Answer 13

A small localized area of dead tissue resulting from failure of blood supply. Infarction or Ischemic stroke are both names for a stroke caused by a blockage in a blood vessel in the brain. This is the most common type of stroke. An infarct can be cause by a blood clot that forms in a vein (thrombus) or a blood clot or fatty plaque formed elsewhere in the body breaks off which then travels to the brain where it blocks a blood vessel (embolus).

Question 14

What does leukoencephalopathy (lōō′kō-ĕn-sĕf′ə-lŏp′ə-thē) mean?

Answer 14

Leukoencephalopathy refers to disorders of brain white matter.

Question 15

What are white blood cells or leukocytes (loo-kuh-sites)?

Answer 15

White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. Multipotency is defined as progenitor cells which have the gene activation potential to differentiate into discrete cell types. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic (he-mat-oh-poi-ee-tic) stem cells; Hematopoietic means the formation of blood therefore hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are the stem cells that give rise to other blood cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.
Elevated levels of white blood cells or leukocytes in your blood can be an indicator that you have an illness or infection. Elevated levels often mean your body is sending more and more white blood cells to fight off infections. Each white blood cell lives anywhere from several hours to several days in the blood stream. They’re vital to protecting you from invading bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. The bone marrow continually replenishes the body’s white blood cell supply. Your bone marrow produces all five of the different kinds of white blood cells in the body: neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, lymphocytes and basophils.

Question 16

What are multipotent cells?

Answer 16

Multipotency describes progenitor cell which have the gene activation potential to differentiate into discrete cell types.

Question 17

What is a progenitor (proh-jen-i-ter) cell?

Answer 17

A progenitor cell is a biological cell that, like a stem cell, has a tendency to differentiate into a specific type of cell, but is already more specific than a stem cell and is pushed to differentiate into its “target” cell. The most important difference between stem cells and progenitor cells is that stem cells can replicate indefinitely, whereas progenitor cells can divide only a limited number of times.

Question 18

What does epigenetic (ep-i-juh-net-ik) mean?

Answer 18

Relating to or arising from non-genetic influences on gene expression.

Question 19

What are transcription factors?

Answer 19

Transcription factors are proteins that help turn specific genes “on” or “off” by binding to nearby DNA.
Transcription factors that are activators boost a gene’s transcription. Repressors decrease transcription.
Groups of transcription factor binding sites called enhancers and silencers can turn a gene on/off in specific parts of the body.
Transcription factors allow cells to perform logic operations and combine different sources of information to “decide” whether to express a gene.

Question 20

What is an adaptogen (adapt-o-gen)?

Answer 20

An adaptogen is a substance that helps increase the effect of certain hormones when activity is low and it will block excess stimulation when activity is high; a substance that optimizes the intended function more efficiently; for example Ashwagandha and Bacopa Monnieri manage stress more efficiently.

Question 21

What is arteriosclerosis (ahr-teer-ee-oh-skluh-roh-sis)?

Answer 21

Degenerative changes in the arteries, characterized by thickening of the vessel walls and accumulation of calcium with consequent loss of elasticity and lessened blood flow.

Question 22

What is atherosclerosis (ath-uh-roh-skluh-roh-sis)?

Answer 22

A common form of arteriosclerosis in which fatty substances form a deposit of plaque on the inner lining of arterial walls.

Question 23

What is arteriovenous (aar·tee·ree·ow·vee·nuhs)?

Answer 23

Relating to or affecting an artery or a vein.

Question 24

What does venous (ve·nous / ˈvēnəs ) mean?

Answer 24

Relating to a vein or the veins or relating to the dark red, oxygen-poor blood in the veins and pulmonary artery.

Question 25

What does is an ischemic stroke (ih-skee-mik) or what is ischemia (ih-skee-mee-uh)?

Answer 25

There are two types of strokes - ischemic and hemorrhagic. Ischemic stroke, also known as an infarct, is the most common type. It is usually caused by a blood clot that blocks or plugs a blood vessel in the brain. This keeps blood from flowing to the brain. Within minutes, brain cells begin to die. There are two types of ischemic strokes: thrombus (a clot forms at the location of the stroke) or embolus (a clot travels and gets lodged at the location of the stroke)

Question 26

What is a TIA?

Answer 26

TIA, or transient ischemic attack, is a “mini stroke” that occurs when a blood clot blocks an artery for a short time. The only difference between a stroke and TIA is that with TIA the blockage is transient (temporary). TIA symptoms occur rapidly and last a relatively short time. Unlike a stroke, when a TIA is over, there’s no permanent injury to the brain. There’s no way to tell if symptoms of a stroke will lead to a TIA or a major stroke.

Question 27

What is a hemorrhagic stroke (hem-er-ij-ic)?

Answer 27

A hemorrhagic stroke occurs when a weakened blood vessel rupture. The two types of weakened blood vessels that usually cause hemorrhagic stroke are aneurysms and arteriovenous malformations (AVMs).

Question 28

What is a arteriovenous malformation?

Answer 28

An arteriovenous malformation (AVM) is a cluster of abnormally formed blood vessels. Any one of these vessels can rupture, also causing bleeding into the brain. An aneurysm is a ballooning of a weakened region of a blood vessel. If left untreated, the aneurysm continues to weaken until it ruptures and bleeds into the brain. The most common cause of hemorrhagic stroke is uncontrolled high blood pressure.

Question 29

What is a thrombus (throm-buh s) or thrombotic (throm-bot-tic) stroke?

Answer 29

A thrombus is a blood clot that forms in a vein whereas an embolus is anything that moves through the vein / blood vessels until it reaches a vessel that is too small to let it pass.

Question 30

What is an embolism (em-bol-ism, noun), embolus (em-bol-us, noun) embolic (em-bol-ik, adj)?

Answer 30

An embolism is the lodging of a blockage-causing piece of material, inside a blood vessel. The embolus maybe a fat globule, a bubble of air or other gas, a piece of a blot clot that broke off, or foreign material.

Question 31

What does lacunar (luh·koo·nr) mean?

Answer 31

Lacunar stroke or lacunar infarct is the most common type of ischemic stroke, resulting from the occlusion of small penetrating arteries that provide blood to the brain’s deep structures.

Question 32

What is thrombolytic therapy (throm-bol-lit-tic) or thrombolysis (throm-bol-uh-sis) mean?

Answer 32

Thrombolysis, also known as thrombolytic therapy, is a treatment to dissolve dangerous clots in blood vessels, improve blood flow, and prevent damage to tissues and organs. Tissue plasminogen activator, tPV, is an example of a thromboylic therapy.

Question 33

What does the greek prefix hypo mean?

Answer 33

Under. The Greek prefix hypo- is used throughout medical terminology. Examples using this prefix include hypothermia and hypocritical. An easy way to remember that the prefix hypo means “under” is through the adjective hypodermic, which refers to going “under” the skin, especially when being given a shot.

Question 34

What is hypoperfusion (hy·po·per·fu·sion)?

Answer 34

Hypoperfusion (shock) is the inadequate delivery of blood flow carrying vital oxygen and nutrients to an organ.

Question 35

What does perfusion (per-fyoo-zhuh n) mean?

Answer 35

Perfusion is the passage of fluid through the circulatory system or lymphatic system to an organ or a tissue, usually referring to the delivery of blood to a capillary bed in tissue.

Question 36

What is an adjuvant (aj-uh-vuh nt)?

Answer 36

An adjuvant is a pharmacological or immunological agent that modifies the effect of other agents. Adjuvants may be added to a vaccine to boost the immune response to produce more antibodies and longer-lasting immunity, thus minimizing the dose of antigen needed.

Question 37

What does adjunctive mean?

Answer 37

Added to something else as a supplement rather than an essential part.

Question 38

What does superior (suh-peer-ee-er) mean in a medical context?

Answer 38

Superiorly means situated above, or directed upward; in official anatomic nomenclature, used in reference to the upper surface of an organ or other structure, or to a structure occupying a higher position.

Question 39

What does inferior (in-feer-ee-er) mean in a medical context?

Answer 39

Inferior means in a lower in place or position; closer to the bottom or base.

Question 40

What does anterior (an-teer-ee-er) mean in a medical context?

Answer 40

Anterior means situated before or at the front of.

Question 41

What does posterior (po-steer-ee-er) mean in a medical context?

Answer 41

Posterior means situated behind or at the rear of.

Question 42

What are leukotrienes (loo-kuh-tra-hyeens)?

Answer 42

Leukotrienes are a lipid, C20H30O3, produced by white blood cells. They are an inflammatory chemical the body releases after coming in contact with an allergen or allergy trigger. Leukotrienes cause tightening of airway muscles and the production of excess mucus and fluid.

Question 43

What are prostaglandins (pros-tuh-glan-dins)?

Answer 43

Prostaglandins are compounds in the body made of fats that have hormone-like effects. They’re interesting because they can have different effects depending on the receptors where they attach.
Unlike hormones, they aren’t released from a specific gland. Instead, the body has a number of tissues that can make prostaglandins.
They usually have a short half-life, so they don’t last long in the body. For this reason, they can only affect cells that are close by. That’s why they’re present throughout the body. Many times, these effects are exact opposites. Examples include:
• constriction or dilation of blood vessels
• forming platelets into a cluster or breaking them up
• opening or closing up airways
• contracting or relaxing smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract
• causing uterine contractions in pregnancy and when not pregnant
• decreasing intraocular (eye) pressure

Question 44

What are cytokines (sai·tuh·kainzs)?

Answer 44

Cytokines are cell signaling molecules that aid cell to cell communication in immune responses and stimulate the movement of cells towards sites of inflammation, infection and trauma.
Some cytokines are produced in the brain sanctuary and others can originate from the periphery. Some, such as epidermal growth factor (EGF), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF), and interleukins (IL)-1 and 6, can cross the BBB; others, such as transforming growth factor (TGF)-α and β1, accumulate in the vicinity of the barrier and are degraded in the blood circulation.
Strategies to modulate immune responses using cytokines have been evaluated in a wide variety of diseases in the CNS, including stroke, MS, AD, and malignancies. In patients with stroke, cytokine trials were aimed at increasing perfusion in the ischemic penumbra, and subsequently, the diminishing clinical deficit. Several studies have shown a role for IL-1α and IL-1β in the pathophysiology of neuronal injury after an ischemic accident in the brain. In patients diagnosed with AD, amyloid deposition is accompanied by an increase in several pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-6, which may contribute to neuron loss. As such, an antagonist to the IL-1 receptor (anakinra), which can bypass the BBB and reach sufficient concentrations in the brain to perform neuroprotective functions, has been used to safely treat patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage. Anakinra may also be beneficial in patients with stroke to reduce inflammatory IL-6 levels, which have been implicated in poststroke tissue remodeling.

Question 45

What are neutrophils (NOO-troh-fils)?

Answer 45

A neutrophil is the most plentiful type of white blood cell, making up 55 to 70 percent of white blood cells. Neutrophils form an essential part of the innate immune system and they are one of the first cell types to travel to the site of an infection. Neutrophils help fight infection by ingesting microorganisms and releasing enzymes that kill the microorganisms. There are four other types of white blood cells.

Question 46

What are monocytes (mon-uh-sahyt)?

Answer 46

A large, circulating white blood cell or leukocyte, formed in bone marrow and in the spleen and travels through the blood to tissues in the body where it becomes a macrophage or a dendritic cell. A monocyte is part of the immune system that surround and kill microorganisms, ingest foreign material, remove dead cells, and boost immune responses. During inflammation, dendritic cells boost immune responses by showing antigens on their surface to other cells of the immune system. Monocytes are part of the innate immune system but also influence the process of the adaptive immune system.

Question 47

What are eosinophils (ee-uh-sin-uh-fils)?

Answer 47

Eosinophils are a type of disease-fighting white blood cell. You can have high levels of eosinophils in your blood (blood eosinophilia) or in tissues at the site of an infection or inflammation (tissue eosinophilia). Eosinophils are stored in tissues throughout the body, surviving for up to several weeks.
Eosinophils have two important functions are within your immune system: they destroy invading germs like viruses, bacteria, or multi-cellular parasites such as hookworms and they have a role in the inflammatory response, especially if an allergy is involved.
Inflammation is both good and bad; it helps isolate and control the immune response at the site of an infection, but a side effect is tissue damage around it. Eosinophils play a significant role in the inflammation related to allergies, eczema, and asthma.

Question 48

What are lymphocytes (lim-fuh-sahyts)?

Answer 48

A lymphocyte is a type of leukocyte or white blood cell with a large, spherical nucleus surrounded by a thin layer of nongranular cytoplasm. They are the main type of cell found in lymph nodes, which prompted the name “lymphocyte”. Lymphocyte makes up between 18% and 42% of circulating leukocytes.
There are two main types lymphocytes: T cells and B cells. B cells produce antibody molecules that can latch on and destroy invading viruses or bacteria. T cells are direct fighters of foreign invaders and also produced cytokines, which are biological substances that help activate other parts of the immune system. One such part activated by cytokines is called macrophages. These macrophages act to clean up the invaders and the dead tissue after an immune response.

Question 49

What are basophils (bey-suh-fils)?

Answer 49

Basophils are a type of white blood cell. Basophils account for less than three percent of your white blood cells. In allergic reactions, the immune system is exposed to an allergen. Basophils release histamine during allergic reactions. Basophils are also thought to play a role in causing the body to produce the antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE). This antibody then binds to basophils and a similar type of cell called mast cells. These cells release substances such as histamines and serotonin. They mediate the inflammatory response in the area of your body that was exposed to the allergen.
Basophils contain heparin. This is a naturally occurring blood-thinning substance.

Question 50

What is the Humoral (hyoo-mer-uhl) Immune Response?

Answer 50

Many of the bacteria that cause infectious disease in humans multiply in the extracellular spaces of the body, and most intracellular pathogens spread by moving from cell to cell through the extracellular fluids. The extracellular spaces are protected by the humoral immune response, in which antibodies produced by B cells cause the destruction of extracellular microorganisms and prevent the spread of intracellular infections. The activation of B cells and their differentiation into antibody-secreting plasma cells is triggered by antigen and usually requires helper T cells. The term ‘helper T cell’ is often used to mean a cell from the TH2 class of CD4 T cells, but a subset of TH1 cells can also help in B-cell activation.